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- ItemImproving Agricultural Practices in Mabibi as a means of limiting ecological impacts.(2005) Nyathikazi, Nqobile P. K.; Scogings, P; Wilson, AThis thesis considers the role of agriculture in a developing rural area adjacent to a nature reserve in northeastern South Africa. The study is framed within the socio- economic conditions of the people of Mabibi, South Africa, a village of 1000 Zulu and Tonga people, most of whom are engaged in subsistence agriculture in nutrient- poor soils and community based use of natural resources. The study actively engages with the community through fieldwork consisting of incremental steps to improve farming practice, with the aim of spatially limiting land disturbance in the wetlands, hence leaving areas for wildlife conservation. - A number of questions are addressed: will improved agricultural practice limit ecological impacts? What will be the main adaptation required to successfully implementing organic farming? Can locally-sourced funding take farming practice to another level? This thesis examines the cultural protocols used in villages faced with environmental assets conflicting with subsistence livelihoods. Constraints faced by developing rural communities may be alleviated through agricultural improvements in the short term and an economic diversification in the long term. A 200m2 on-farm experimental plot was implemented at Mabibi. In the first planting, Peanuts (arachis hypogaea) and onion (alliutn cepa) were sown in November 2003 using a block replicates system. Plots were divided into two and again sub-divided into eight. Organic compost was imported from the University of Zululand and incorporated at a rate of 5 kg / 2m3 of soil, applied in eight 2 x 2 m blocks. In the other 8 blocks pre-existent soil conditions were maintained (control). Since moving crops from wet to dry lands was the aim, it was difficult to expect positive results without an expensive irrigation system. Mabibi's area, characterized by sub- tropical climate, is often exposed to dry spells. Annual mean precipitation can be high (1000 mm/year), but usually is concentrated in short periods, which leaves long dry and high temperature spells. Soil temperature in the open field at mid-day were measured and found to be up to 48°C! However with a mulch layer on the surface, this was reduced to 35°C. Given the poor soil and dry weather, vegetables such as onions would have difficulty growing without water stress. Drought and little compost caused the onions to fail. Peanuts responded to a small increase in composted nutrients with a 15% increase in yield, despite drought and pests. In the second planting in April 2004 more compos was added. Compost was incorporated at a rate of 25 kg / 2 m3 soil and a significant of 54% increase in bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) yield was found, (accounting for standard deviations within the sample). Though sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) fared poorly with low rainfall, it responded positively to compost. The dry weight difference between compost and non-compost samples was 22%. These methods of composting and the outcome of the field experiments were conveyed to the community through workshops and meetings. Some of the local people realise the value of organic farming and seem ready to begin an implementation that will reduce wetland impacts. The community also has an increased awareness that conserving the wetlands will maintain a higher water table and cleaner water, and will thus keep them healthy and strong.
- ItemImpacts of livestock on rehabilitating post-mining Dune forest in Zululand(2007) Mpanza, Thamsanqa Doctor Empire; Scogings, P.F.; Kunene, N.W.Richard's Bay Minerals (RBM) disturbs the natural vegetation by mining heavy minerals (zircon, rutile and ilmenite) along the northern coast of KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa. The disturbed area has to be rehabilitated in order to be reused by the future generation. RBM initiated a rehabilitation program in 1978 where the mining commenced, and that has resulted in stands of different ages, however, little is known about the impact of cattle from neighbours grazing in this rehabilitating forest. The study of the impact of cattle grazing on the oldest stand which has been under ecological rehabilitation for 28 years (during the time of the study) was conducted in order to assess the effect of cattle grazing. The following questions were addressed. • What is the impact of cattle on the structure and functioning of rehabilitating forests on the coastal sand dunes? • What impact do grazing cattle have on the micro-environment of the rehabilitating forest? • Do communal cattle disperse some exotic tree species from the community to the rehabilitating forest? The study comprised of two components which are field and laboratory experiments. Field experiment was conducted on the 28 years old rehabilitating stand (see figure 2.2 in chapter two) and lab experiment was conducted at the University of Zululand in KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa. Field experiment addressed the impact of livestock grazing in the rehabilitation. Therefore a one-hectare plot was demarcated and divided into two halves. One half was fenced (exclosure) to prevent cattle grazing and the other half was unfenced (control) to allow cattle grazing. Eight transect belts of 80 m2 each were marked per subplot and three markers were pinned (one on each end of the transect belt and one in the middle) per transect belt. Transect belts were 5 m apart. A total of sixteen 0.25 m2 quadrats were clipped between the markers per subplot (exclosure and control). Clipped biomass was oven dried and weighed and further analysed for NDF and CP. Seed germination surveys was also conducted per subplots around each marker in a complete randomised design with four replicate. Laboratory experiment was conducted at the University of Zululand as a multi-factorial experiment which evaluated the external (possible damaging) factor(s) on Acacia karroo and the experiment was arranged in complete a randomised design with four replicate. A total of 972 Acacia karroo seeds were sown in 324 pots which were filled with sandy soil and each pot was planted with three seedlings. Seedlings were subjected to the following treatment: damage, water, fertilizer and shade each having three levels. At the termination of the experiment seedling height was measured and seedlings were oven dried at 60°C for 48 hours, after which shoot and root dry mass were recorded separately. Another experiment was proposed based on findings that guava was a dispersed tree species in the rehabilitating forest. Therefore a pot experiment was conducted in order to check the effects of grass, damage and water in guava establishment in the rehabilitating forest. The Psidium guajava experiment differed from the Acacia karroo experiment because shade was standardised (all pots were shaded by 80% shade cloth) and fertiliser was replaced by grass competition, making three factors. Another difference was that treatments were replicated eight times with one pot per treatment. Guava seeds were sown in 216 pots and seeds were not counted, but before guava was sown LM grass was sown in two thirds of the pots and it was given two months for establishment prior guava seeds being sown. One month after germination, seedling height was measured and three of eight replicates per factor was terminated prior to infliction of damage treatment. The remaining seedling height was measured weekly until the experiment was terminated month later. Seedlings were oven dried at 60°C for 48 hours, and thereafter root and shoot was weighed separately and in three out of five remaining replicates seedling leaf was weighed separately. Statistical significance was considered at the 5% level (P < 0.05). Cattle grazing in the rehabilitating forest was found to reduce seedling establishment significantly (P = 0.041) by 49.8%. Communal cattle which grazed in the rehabilitating forest reduced herbaceous biomass by 51.8% (P < 0.001). There was no significant difference in NDF and CP between the subplots (P = 0.165 and P = 0.453 respectively). Cattle consumed guava seeds and they dispersed them in rehabilitating forest which was the most preferred for gazing. Germination tests done on guava seeds that had passed through livestock alimentary canals as compared with fresh seeds (from tree), showed that the passage of guava seed in the digestive track did not trigger germination. Livestock play a major role in the livelihood of Kwa-Mbonambi communal farmers, however livestock mortality and shortage of grazing land were their major constraints in livestock operation. Communal farmers in Kwa-Mbonambi keep livestock for cultural activities and to support their families since they are unemployed. Their cattle invade the rehabilitating forest where they disturb the rehabilitation programme. Therefore cattle grazing in the rehabilitating forest hinders seedling establishment and herbaceous cover and that disturbed the micro-environmental condition of the forest. Damage in the form of clipping significantly reduced height of Acacia karroo seedlings (P < 0.001), by 75.9%. There was no significant effect on seedling height due to factor interactions (P = 0.338). Shades decreased shoot mass of seedlings by 19.9% (P < 0.001). Moreover there was a significant effect of interaction of three factors namely fertiliser, water and damage (P = 0.020). Daily watering reduced shoot mass in the absence of fertiliser. Shade reduced root mass significantly (P < 0.001) by 33.1%. Clipping also reduced root mass significantly (P < 0.001), however watering daily increased root mass of clipped seedlings in the absence of fertiliser. Grass had a significant effect on guava seedling establishment (P < 0.001). Irrigation also had a significant effect on growth of guava seedlings (P < 0.001). Grass reduced the growth rate of guava seedlings. Clipping reduced root mass significantly (P < 0.001). The highest interaction had a significant (P.< 0.028) effect on root mass, where as in seedling height and shoot mass the highest interaction of three factors had no significant effect (P = 599 and P = 0.186). Damage in the form of clipping significantly reduced seedling height, in other words it hinders growth rate and the establishment of tree species. Acacia karroo is known to allocate more nutrients in root growth, however clipping reduced root growth in order to compensate shoot regrowth after clipping. Though guava is dispersed by communal livestock grazing in the rehabilitating forest their establishment is hindered by grass. In conclusion Acacia karroo was found to be suitable for the rehabilitating programme with low supervision. Acacia karroo is regarded as an invasive tree species, and since it is a legume it has nitrogen fixing bacteria in roots hence it enriches soil with nitrogen and it has a competitive ability in nitrogen poor soil. Though guava found to be dispersed by cattle in the forest, its establishment was found to be hindered by grass, therefore it is very rare for guava to invade the forest. The follows recommendations are proposed for the smooth operation of rehabilitation. There is a need for research on the long-term impacts of livestock. The two communities of Kwa-Mbonambi and RBM need to reach a point where they agree on the importance of rehabilitation.
- ItemDiet selection and foraging efficiency of Nguni goats in the Zululand Thornveld, Kwazulu-Natal(2008) Mkhize, Ntuthuko R.; Scogings, P.F.; Nsahlai, I.V.Foraging efficiency and diet selection are central processes in plant-herbivore interactions. An understanding of these important parameters of foraging behaviour underpins sustainable vegetation management and profitable animal production. As a step towards better understanding the browse-browser interactions in a sub-humid subtropical savanna, a Nguni goat breed was used as a model browser in cafeteria-style experiments. The primary objective of the study was to determine the seasonal and plant species patterns of foraging efficiency (indexed by short-term intake rates) and diet selection (indexed by intake). The secondary aim was to investigate how potential explanatory variables such as plant morphology (spinescence, long vs. short shoots and broad vs. fine leaves), phenology (evergreen vs. deciduous species) and plant chemistry (nitrogen, neutral detergent fibre, acid detergent fibre, acid detergent lignin, condensed tannin, cellulose and hemicellulose) are related with the observed patterns. Six browse species (Acacia natalitia, A. nilotica, Dichrostachys cinerea, Grewia occidentalis, Gymnosporia marangiiensis and Sciitia myrtind) were used in two experiments to estimate (1) short-term intake rates and (2) intake patterns at four times during the year (i.e. early, middle and late wet season and dry season). Intake rates varied significantly (P ~ 0.022) among plant species, with broad leaved species being consumed at higher rates than fine leaved ones. Intake rates were highest during the dry season (mean: 0.18 g s"1 ± SEM: 0.012 g s'1) and lowest in the late wet season (mean: 0.15 g s" ± SEM: 0.009 g s" ). Bite size was found to be the key variable influencing the intake rate of Nguni goats. No significant relationships were found between intake rate and either nitrogen, neutral detergent fibre, acid detergent fibre, acid detergent lignin, cellulose or hemicellulose concentrations. Condensed tannin concentration (% DM) was positively correlated with both intake rate (r = 0.65, P = 0.001, n = 24) and bite size (r = 0.53, P = 0.007, #i = 24). Diet selection was affected by the interactions between the seasons and browse species (P = 0.001). S. myrxina and G. occidentalis were consistently among the most preferred species through out all seasons, while the opposite was true for G. marangiiensis and A. nilotica. During the dry season, A. natalitia ranked third among the avoided species and inconsistently featured among the most preferred species later in wet seasons. The opposite was observed for D. cinerea. A positive relationship was also observed between intake (an index for diet selection) and condensed tannin (r = 0.27. P = 0.001, n = 144). Both foraging efficiency and diet selection were influenced more by the leaf and shoot morphology than spinescence. Plant chemistry did not clearly explain either foraging efficiency or diet selection patterns. These results have important implications for vegetation management and goat production in the Zululand Coastal Thornveld.
- ItemThe effect of condensed tannins on goats’ body weight(2010) Dludla, Sicelo Phumlani; Scogings, P.F.; Dziba, L.E.Tannins are one of the most common plant secondary compounds. Amongst the tannins are condensed tannins (CT), which occur nearly in every plant species browsed by goats. Condensed tannins have a potential to bind proteins, reduce the feed intake and consequently reduce the body weight gain of goats. The study was conducted in order to determine the effects of different condensed tannin concentrations on the body weight gain of goats. The first experiment was conducted for three weeks in order to determine the effect of different condensed tannin concentrations in browse species. To eliminate the large chemical and physical variation in browse species and to have more control in feeding, the second experiment with artificial diets was conducted for four weeks. In each experiment, twenty-four goats were fed four different levels of condensed tannin-containing diets with six goats in each diet group. In the first experiment, a marginal negative relationship between condensed tannin concentrations and the body weight gain of goats was observed. There was no significant relationship between condensed tannin concentration and the browse intake, pellet intake and lucerne intake, protein intake, protein retention and protein loss by goats. In the second experiment, a significant negative effect of different CT concentrations on the body weight gain, pellet intake of goats as well as on the protein intake, faecal protein loss and protein retention of goats was observed. Protein retention and faecal protein loss were all affected by CT concentrations and yet did not affect growth. However, feed intake was affected by CT concentrations and affected growth. Studying the effects of condensed tannins using synthetic condensed tannins in the artificial diets is more informative than using condensed tannins in browse species. However, even condensed tannins in the artificial diets cannot explain the mechanisms which affect the body weight gain after consuming condensed tannin rich diets.
- ItemPreparation and characterization of nafion-based nanocomposite membranes for fuel cell applications(2010) Cele, Nonhlanhla Precious; Ray, S.S.; Ndwandwe, O.M.The Nafion-based nanocomposite membranes with improved properties were prepared by melt-extrusion process at 250C. The compression molding was then used for the preparation of thin films of about 0.1–0.3 mm. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) were used as nanofiller to improve Nafion properties. CNTs were chemically treated with nitric acid and hexadecaylamine before incorporation into Nafion. Transmission electron microscopy showed that chemical treatment did not cause any damage to the tubes. Differently treated tubes were incorporated into Nafion in different loadings. CNTs containing Nafion nanocomposite membranes showed significant improvement in thermal stability. Nitric acid treated CNTs (oCNTs) containing Nafion membranes showed excellent thermo-mechanical properties. A balance in water uptake and proton conductivity was observed with Nafion/oCNTs (1wt %) nanocomposite membrane. Methyl tallow bis(2-hydroxylethyl) quaternary ammonium salt modified montmorillonite, commercially known as Cloisite®30B (C30B), was also used as nanofiller to reduce methanol permeability of Nafion membrane. The content of C30B was varied from 0.5–2 wt% and its effect on different properties of Nafion was studied. Thermo-mechanical properties of Nafion were found to improve dramatically after incorporation of C30B. Methanol permeability of Nafion was decreased after nanocomposite formation with C30B and the electrical conductivity is independent of C30B amount. Titanium dioxide nanotubes (TNTs) were prepared by hydrothermal treatment of titanium dioxide in presence of potassium hydroxide as a base. TNTs were then used as nanofiller in different proportions to improve Nafion properties so that it can be used as a membrane for fuel cell fabrication. Improved thermal stability of Nafion was observed with incorporation of 0.5 and 2 wt% of TNTs. Methanol permeability was highly reduced with incorporation of 2 wt% TNTs, indicating possible improved fuel cell performance.
- ItemGenetic variation between and within six selected South African sheep breeds using random amplified polymorphic DNA and protein markers(2011) Hlophe, Sambulo Revelation; Kunene, N.W.; Bezuidenhout, C.C.; Opoku, A.R.Six South Africa sheep breeds comprised of indigenous, imported and locally developed sheep were sampled. These breeds include Nguni sheep (Zulu, Swazi and Pedi), South African Merino, Damara and Dorper. Nguni goats were used as an out group. The first objective of this study was to determine the intra and inter-population genetic relationships among six South African (SA) sheep breeds using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and protein markers. The second objective was to compare the efficiency between RAPD and protein markers in assessing the genetic variation. The Nei‟s genetic distance produced by the RAPD analysis ranged from 0.0430 – 0.1193 for the six selected sheep breeds. The results indicated that Zulu and Swazi breeds were the most genetically identical with a genetic distance of 0.0430. The second closest sheep breeds were the SA Merino and Damara with a genetic distance of 0.0595. The Pedi was related to the Dorper sheep breed with a genetic distance of 0.0814. The greatest genetic distance was between the Pedi and the SA Merino (0.1193) indicating that these two breeds are relatively distant from one another. Genetic identity was the largest (0.9579) between Swazi and Zulu breeds, followed by 0.9423 between SA Merino and Damara breeds. On the UPGMA dendogram the Zulu sheep formed a cluster with the Swazi sheep and the Damara clustered with the SA Merino. The Nguni goats did not cluster with the sheep breeds. The degree of genetic similarity within the sheep breeds ranged from 66.48 - 88.48 percent. The relationship within the Zulu sheep breed was 72.77%, Pedi 70.76%, Dorper 75.38% and Damara 83.24%. The Swazi sheep breed demonstrated the lowest percentage (66.48%) of genetic similarities between the individuals. On the other hand, the SA Merino breed with 88.48% showed the highest percentage of genetic similarity. When using the iso-enzymes of transferrin, the Damara and SA Merino formed a cluster with a genetic similarity of 97.13%. Just as in the RAPD results, the Pedi did not form a cluster with other Nguni sheep. The transferrin profile was able to characterise the Nguni goats as an out group species. The dendogram constructed using the data of the protein profile could not differentiate clearly between the sheep breeds and the Nguni goats. It can be concluded that although genetic relationships exist, the genetic distances vary among the six sheep breeds. The RAPD analysis demonstrated that these breeds can be treated differently. The genetic variation gave an indication that some breeds such as South African Merino are more uniform. The study showed that the RAPD markers can be used as a tool to estimate the genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationships among breeds of sheep. However, the protein markers must be used with caution. It is recommended that more research should be done to determine the genetic origin of the three Nguni sheep breeds (Zulu, Swazi and Pedi).
- ItemPhenotypic characterization of Zulu sheep: implications for conservation and improvement(University of Zululand, 2012) Mavule, Bafowethu Sibanda; Kunene, N.W.; Bezuidenhout, C.C.Understanding the characteristics of the Zulu sheep breed in its home tract is an essential step towards the development of a sustainable conservation and improvement programme. A survey was conducted in 11 rural areas of KwaZulu-Natal in the quest to (i) describe traditional Zulu sheep production systems, (ii) describe the morphological structure of the breed, and (iii) to quantify morphological variation among sheep populations. Most farmers began sheep production with an initial stock size of less than four, either bought from other farmers or inherited. Sheep were mainly used as a source of food and income. Flock sizes were 39.8±7.5 on average, with each flock constituting of 3.12±0.31 rams, 21.8±5.61 ewes, 5.0±0.87 yearlings and 9.9±2.05 lambs. About 28.0% of the flocks occurred in isolation while 43.7% interacted with two or fewer neighbouring flocks. There was about 7.4% decrease in sheep numbers in the past 5 years. Drought and diseases were the major causes of sheep loss. Principal component analysis of morphometric traits extracted two components with a total variance of 66.9% in young sheep and four components in adult sheep with a total variance of 62.1%. The first factor (PC1) in each case had high loadings for variables relating to body size, while PC2 had high association with traits reflecting body shape. PC3 had high factor loadings for head length and head width, representing head size. The use of principal components was more appropriate than the use of original correlated variables in predicting body weight of Zulu sheep. Dark brown was the most prevalent coat colour. It occurred as either solid or mixed with white. Sheep from Nqutu measured highest in most morphometric variables whilst sheep from Empangeni measured lowest. Discriminant analysis identified rump width (RW), head width vi (HW), heart girth (HG), thorax depth (TD) and tail length (TL) as the most discriminative variables in differentiating Zulu sheep populations. Two major groups were identified by cluster analysis, one formed by Empangeni, Mtubatuba and Nongoma and the other by Jozini Msinga and Eshowe populations. Estcourt and Nqutu joined these major groups as individual entities at distance with the latter being furthest. Discriminant function analysis was able to correctly classify 62.2% of individual sheep into their original populations. The high morphological variation among Zulu sheep populations, infer considerable genetic variability. Maintaining this genetic variation is important if the goal is to continue and improve the productive performance of the animals and respond to change in climate, disease or consumer preference while improving the livelihoods and food security of livestock keepers.
- ItemThe effect of post-harvest ammonium sulphate application, planting time and sucker size on plant growth and yield of queen pineapple, ananas comosus(University of Zululand, 2013) Mbatha, Bongumusa Wiseman; Zobolo, A.M.; Zharare, G.E.; Rabie, E.C.Queen pineapple plant mortality as well as poor growth and development are some of the major problems facing the Hluhluwe pineapple producers. Approximately 20% of the plants do not produce fruit, due to mortality or poor growth. Queen pineapple plantings are currently established from suckers taken from harvested plants. The speed and development of suckers on the mother plant is not rapid enough to be used as planting material at fruit harvest. Therefore, suckers are left to grow on the mother plant for 6 to 8 months after harvesting the plant crop for the suckers to attain a suitable size for planting. The aim of the study was to determine, under field conditions, the effects and interactions of post-harvest ammonium sulphate fertilizer application and the duration of sucker growth on the production and quality of suckers as well as on the growth and development of subsequent plantings. Post-harvest (NH4)2SO4 application had a significant influence on the percentage increase in sucker fresh mass and length when interacting with the duration of sucker growth on the mother plant. Growing suckers on the mother plant for up to 8 months, after the application of post-harvest (NH4)2SO4, produced more plantable suckers than growing them for 6 or 10 months. Four sucker sizes were produced namely, size 2, 3, 4 and 5. Grading suckers by length produced more plantable material than grading by fresh mass. Plant gain in fresh mass and stem diameter, was positively correlated with sucker size and post-harvest (NH4)2SO4 application. At 2 months after planting, 6 symptoms that could lead to plant mortality were identified namely, wilted plants, plants toppling over, plants planted doo deep, plants growing slowly, plants with funnel rot and plant that dying back. The total percentage of these plant mortality symptoms was 19.6% in the March planting, 26% in the May planting and 33.1% in the August planting. Wilted plants and plants planted too deeply formed a greater proportion of the plants affected by the mortality symptoms in all the plantings. Some of the plants affected by the mortality symptoms recovered and grew into healthy plants, whereas some grew slowly and some died. Sucker size and post-harvest (NH4)2SO4 application had no significant effect on levels of mealybug, Dymicoccus brevipes and red mite, Dolichotetranychus floridanus infestation. Post-harvest (NH4)2SO4 application influenced the percentage of P and K in leaves in the May and August planting. Sucker size had an influence on N percentage in the March planting only. Plants established from smaller sucker sizes had a significantly higher N percentage than plants established from bigger sucker sizes. Sucker size had an influence on flowering failure. Plants established from a smaller sucker size had a higher percentage of flowering failure than the plants established from a bigger sucker size. The March planting had a higher percentage of plants that failed to produce flowers after flower induction than the May and August planting. The total percentage of plants that failed to flower in the March planting was 15.92% (7.39% due to plant mortality symptoms and 8.53% due to unknown causes), in the May planting it was 6.02% (4.69% due to plant mortality symptoms and 1.33% due to unknown causes) and in the August planting it was 7.56% (5.39% due to plant mortality symptoms and 2.17% due to unknown causes). Plant mortality symptoms were the main cause of flowering failure in the May and August plantings. Postharvest (NH4)2SO4 application had a significant effect on wilted plants in the March planting and on natural flowering in the August planting. Flowering failure resulted in fruit yield loss. Fruit yield was more influenced by the sucker size than by post-harvest (NH4)2SO4 application. There was a positive correlation between sucker size and fruit yield. Fruit size was used to determine the influence of post-harvest (NH4)2SO4 application and sucker size on the external and internal quality of the fruit. Post-harvest (NH4)2SO4 application had a significant influence on fruit length, inter-fruitlet cracks, winter speckle occurrence and total soluble solids. Sucker size was found to have an influence on the number of fruitlet spirals, fruit length, crown fresh mass, fruitlet cracks, winter speckle occurrence and total soluble solids. Black spot, nectary duct and internal browning infestation were influenced by the number of days the fruit were kept in storage after harvesting. Post-harvest (NH4)2SO4 application and sucker size had no significant influence on black spot, nectary duct and internal browning infestation. Eight months after fruit harvest in the March and May planting, evaluation was done to determine the effect of post-harvest (NH4)2SO4 application, sucker size and mortality symptoms on sucker yield. Plants established from bigger suckers produced longer and heavier suckers as well as a higher number of plantable suckers than plants established from smaller suckers. Healthy plants produced longer and heavier suckers as well as a higher number of plantable suckers than plants that were affected by the mortality symptoms. Plants treated with post-harvest (NH4)2SO4 produced quality planting material in terms of fresh mass and length. Leaving the suckers to grow for 8 months after fruit harvest produces more plantable material. Planting the planting material obtained from plants treated with post-harvest (NH4)2SO4 increased fruit yield and profit.
- ItemInfluence of diesel spillage on the productivity of ipomoea batatas and lactuca sativa(University of Zululand, 2013) Fatokun, Kayode; Zharare, G.E; Zharare, G.E.The effects of diesel contamination in soil on the germination, growth and dry matter partitioning in Lactuca sativa (crisp head variety) and Ipomoea batatas (dagga variety) were studied at two diesel concentration ranges 0-30 and 0-6 ml/kg soil. The first experiment tested the effects of diesel concentration and age of diesel contamination in soil on the germination of L. sativa and I. batatas. The second experiment investigated the effects of diesel contamination in soil on the growth and dry matter partitioning in I. batatas and L. sativa. The effects of diesel concentration in soil contamination on the germination of L. sativa and I. batatas varied with the diesel concentration and the age of diesel contamination in the soil. Diesel inhibited the germination of L. sativa and I. batatas in a concentration dependent manner, showing increased inhibition with increasing concentration of diesel contamination in the soil. Also, the critical concentration of diesel for toxicity on the germination of L. sativa and I. batatas increased with the aging of diesel contamination in soil. However, the influence of diesel contamination in soil on the germination of the two species diminished with the age of diesel contamination in soil, suggesting possible reduction in diesel toxicity over time. The germination of L. sativa was more affected by diesel contamination in soil than that of I. batatas. The result of experiment two indicated that, after 14 weeks of growth, the plant height, number of leaves, stem lengths, root lengths and the leaves chlorophyll content of L. sativa and I. batata, were highly negatively correlated with diesel concentration in soil contamination. The effects of diesel contamination in the soil on dry matter partitioning of the two species also varied with diesel concentration in soil contamination. At low diesel concentration in soil contamination in soil contamination (0-6 ml/kg soil), allocation of dry matter to the shoot system was favoured resulting in high shoot: root ratio of 4.54 and 12.91 for L. sativa and I. batatas respectively. However, at diesel concentration in soil contamination 0-30 ml/kg, allocation of dry matter to the root was favoured, an indication of the effort of L. sativa and I. batatas to survive the phytotoxic effects of diesel hydrocarbons in the soil. The effects of diesel contamination in soil on the germination and growth of Ipomoea batatas were more pronounced on the germination and growth of Lactuca sativa. It can be concluded that, the phytotoxicity of diesel contamination in soil on the germination and growth of L. sativa is markedly stronger than the phytotoxity of diesel on the germination and growth of I. batatas.
- ItemChemo-morphological characterisation and some biological activities of pelargonium sidoides DC.(University of Zululand, 2013) Mthiyane, Pretty Gqamile; Mavengahama, S.; Kleynhans, R.; Opoku, A.Pelargonium sidoides DC (Geraniaceae) is one of several medicinal plants indigenous to South Africa. Various concoctions prepared from the plant are used for the treatment of tuberculosis, diarrhea, gonorrhea and fevers. The aim of this study was to evaluate the variability in qualitative and quantitative traits in P. sidoides accessions, correlate different morphotypes with the phytochemical content, and to the antimicrobial activity of P. sidoides extracts. Morphological characterisation of accessions of P. sidoides was done using IPGRI/IITA/BAMBNET list for Bambara groundnut. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Cluster Analysis (CA) were used to evaluate the morphological variability and to reveal the groups of different morphotypes. The PCA revealed that the first three principal components exhibited Eigenvalues greater than 1 and explained 74.170% of the total variability, contributing the entire variable to the morphological variation of the accessions established at the University of Zululand. Cluster analysis was able to group the morphotypes into two major groups with each group having two sub-groups. Nine groups of the morphotypes were selected and screened for coumarins (umckalin, esculin and scopoletin) using Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) and High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Coumarins are known to exhibit moderate antibacterial and significant immunomodulatory capabilities. Variation was observed in the phytochemical content (umckalin) of morphotypes of P. sidoides. The content of umckalin varied between 13.90 mg/ml and 4.41 mg/ml in the roots of morphotypes of P. sidoides and 0.15mg/ml and 3.90 mg/ml in the leaves of morphotypes of P. sidoides. Methanolic extracts from leaves and roots of selected morphotypes were screened for antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli ATCC 8739, Staphylococcus aureus ATTC 6538, Shigella flexineri and Salmonella ssp. The antimicrobial activity was determined by agar-well diffusion method. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of active extracts was determined using the micro-plate dilution assay. Significant variation was observed among all accessions for all the investigated traits. The high morphological variation that was observed among morphotypes did not affect the phytochemical content and antimicrobial activity of P. sidoides. Most of the extracts showed relatively high antimicrobial activity against the tested bacterial strains with the inhibition zones ranging between 8.0 and 12.0 mm for leaves and 15.0 and 20.5 mm for the roots. The MIC values for active extracts ranged between 1.5 to 5 mg/ml. In vivo antidiarrheal activity of P.sidoides methanolic root extracts in rats (Sprague-Dawley) was investigated. In the castor oil induced diarrhea experiment, the rats that did not receive the P. sidoides plant extracts showed typical diarrheal signs, stools were too wet. P. sidoides extracts inhibited castor oil induced diarrhea in Sprague-Dawley rats at doses of 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg. The extracts reduced the weight of feacal pellets with extracts treated groups showing lower diarrheal severity than control rats. The variants utilised in this study seem to have similar compounds and could be all utilized in future research on cultivation practices. It was concluded that leaves of the plants may be harvested instead of roots to minimise the complete removal of the plants. The results of this study suggest that P. sidoides extracts possess anti-microbial activities against some of the tested microorganisms which are significant pathogens in humans. P. sidoides roots have the potential for the treatment of diarrhea.
- ItemPhenotypic diversity of indigenous rhizobia nodulating different morphotypes of Vachellia karroo(University of Zululand, 2015) Ngwenya, Nkazimulo; Zharare, G.E.; Basson, A.Vachellia karroo (sweet thorn) is one of the important pasture legumes in agriculture due to its ability to fix nitrogen through its symbiotic relationship with rhizobia. The nitrogen fixed through this biological way is more beneficial than chemical fertilizers as it does not have any harmful effects on the environment, and it is free. There is limited information on the rhizobia nodulating V. karroo growing in South African soils. Therefore, the isolation and determination of phenotypic characteristics of indigenous rhizobia nodulating V. karroo is of paramount in improving symbiotic effectiveness and thus enhance nitrogen fixation. Four different morphotypes of V. karroo obtained from four areas of South Africa with different agro-ecological conditions namely Kei Mouth, Richards Bay, Leeu Gamka and Tshwane were each grown in four soils, also obtained from these areas. Before planting the morphotypes, the chemical properties of the soil were first assessed and an experiment was conducted to isolate rhizobia in the soil to determine their presence. The morphology of the nodules of V. karroo morphotypes was observed after three months of growth. Thirty two rhizobia strains were isolated from the V. karroo morphotypes, two from each morphotype and soil combination. Fresh rhizobia cultures of each strain were used for the Gram test, bromomythyl blue test, determination of generation time and for colony morphology. Notable results from the soil chemical analysis was that soils from Richards Bay and Leeu Gamka were alkaline and those from Kei Mouth and Tshwane were acidic. Results of nodule morphology revealed that nodule morphology was influenced by morphotype and not by soil of origin. All the 32 isolates were Gram negative, 87.5% were fast growing rhizobia with below four hours of generation time and they turned bromomythyl blue indicator yellow while 12.5% were slow growing with a generation time of more than six hours and turned bromomythyl blue indicator blue. All the isolates which were slow growing were expectedly from acidic Tshwane soil as slow growing rhizobia prefer acidic conditions. The colonies for all isolates were generally mucoid, shiny and round. The phenotypic characteristics of the 32 rhizobia isolates were then studied. Variation was noted in the isolates’ response to temperature, pH, salinity, antibiotic resistance and heavy metal resistance. However, the isolates’ response to carbon source utilization was almost the same as they all utilized more than three quarters of the tested carbon sources. When grown under a temperature range of 5 to 450C, all the isolates grew in 15 to 300C. 18.75%, 87.5%, and 28.13% grew at 5, 40, 450C respectively. The temperature tolerance of the isolates was not related to the climatic conditions of soil of origin nor to those of the host morphotypes. None of the tested isolates grew at pH 3 and all grew at pH 6-7. At pH 4, 5, 8 and 9 the percentages of isolates which grew were 22, 38, 91 and 51%, respectively. Isolates extracted from the alkaline soil from Richards bay were unable to grow at low pH of 3-5. However, for the other soils no such relationship was found and also no relationship was found between morphotypes and growth behaviour with respect to pH. The growth performance of the 32 Vachellia karroo rhizobia isolates in relation to salinity varied greatly in all isolates and was not related to the salinity characteristics of the soils from which they were extracted. Fast growing rhizobia were more tolerant to high salt concentrations compared to the slow growing rhizobia. In this research most rhizobia isolates exhibited resistance to antibiotics which was not correlated to conditions of geographic origin and host morphotype and the same pattern was noted in their resistance to heavy metals and utilisation of carbon sources. The dendrogram obtained from the computer numeric analysis of the isolates’ phenotypic characteristics produced six clusters at 83% level of relative similarity. This revealed the high variation of indigenous rhizobia. The clustering of isolates showed some degree of relatedness to the soil of origin and host morphotype contrary to their behaviour under each single treatment. The last study focused on the ability of V. karroo rhizobia from each morphotype to cross nodulate with other morphotypes or with other Vachellia species (V. nilotica and V. tortilis). All the rhizobia strains from the four morphotypes of V. karroo, two from V. nilotica and V. tortilis were able to form symbiosis nodules with the other morphotypes and with other Vachellia species. These results confirm that V. karroo rhizobia are able to form symbiosis with other morphotypes of the host species and also with other species of Vachellia. The same was true for the host plants, they were not specific in terms of the rhizobia nodulating them. From this study, it was discovered that there the four V. karroo morphotypes are generally not distinct in terms of rhizobia nodulating them. It was also noted that behavior of rhizobia under certain conditions is not co-related to soil of origin. Furthermore a wide diversity in characteristic was noted in the rhizobia nodulating V. karroo which is advantageous when used in the selection of rhizobia which are tolerant to certain adverse condition, symbiotic effectiveness and competitive ability.
- ItemThe characterisation of semen from Zulu Rams raised under extensive management conditions in KwaZulu-Natal(University of Zululand, 2015) Chella, Lisa Coelleen; Kunene, N.W.; Lehloenya, K.The Zulu sheep is an Nguni breed indigenous to the KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) province in South Africa, and is reported to be under threat of extinction. Studies investigating the factors that may be the cause of the declining numbers are required for the strategic planning of conservation programmes. The study was designed to evaluate some of the factors viz. ram age, season and geographic location, that influence reproductive performance in Zulu sheep populations based on the viability of Zulu ram semen. Spermiogramic parameters used to assess quality were: scrotal circumference (cm); semen volume (ml); semen pH; sperm concentration (x109), progressive and mass motility (%), and percentages of live and abnormal spermatozoa. Semen samples were collected via electro-ejaculation and analysed using a microscope while the scrotal circumference was measured using a flexible measuring tape. All data was analysed using the statistical software SPSS version 22. The average semen volume (ml) per ejaculate was 0.66, 1.11, 1.19, 0.82 and the sperm concentration 1.69, 2.79, 3.12, 3.07 (x109) for summer, autumn, winter and spring, respectively. The effects of age on all parameters were significant except for pH. There was a positive correlation between age and semen volume, concentration and semen colour. The values of volume, concentration, motility and live sperm increased linearly up to 3 years of age. Scrotal circumference and live spermatozoa were comparatively higher for rams at 3 years of age than at 4 years of age, while the values were the same at 1 and 2 years of age. The percentage of abnormal spermatozoa decreased down to 3 years of age, thereafter increasing from 4 years of age. The semen quality improved at 3 years of age and thereafter decreased. The effects of season on semen quality positively correlated in some of the geographic locations. For conservation purposes it would therefore be more efficient to select breeding sires from among the 3 year old rams for the autumn and winter breeding programme.
- ItemResponse of marula to simulated browsing on a productivity gradient(University of Zululand, 2015) Siko, Sakhile Michael; Scogings, P. F.; De Fortier, A.Marula (Sclerocarya birrea) is a heavily utilisedsavannah tree species and is widely used by people and animals for its leaves, bark, fruits and roots. Because of its importance in terms of economy, ecology, cultural values and dominance in some low veld areas of South Africa, it is therefore of importance to understand responses of marula trees to environmental factors. Two key factors in regulating savannah functioning are browsing and soil fertility. The aim of this research was to assess the effects of simulated browsing on the physical and chemical properties of marula trees growing on a productivity gradient in a controlled environment. The hypothesis to be tested was that, marula saplings respond to browsing intensity by showing a trend of increasing treee height, stem diameter, old shoot extension, number of new shoots, new shoot length, leaf biomass and foliar nitrogen along a productivity gradient. Conversely, marula saplings showed a trend of decreasing flavonoid content, condensed tannin concentration, Neutral-detergent fibre, acid-detergent fibre, and acid-detergent lignin in response to to increasing browsing intensity along a productivity gradient. Browsing was simulated bu clipping the saplings at a range of intensities and a productivity gradient was achieved by applying fertiliser at a range of levels. The interaction between clipping and fertiliser treatments had a significant effect in explaining final tree heigh (P<0.001), stem diameter (P<0,001), old shoot extension (P=0.028), and number of new shoots (P=0.040) but the significance of the interaction for final tree height and stem diameter was influenced by both initial tree height and initial stem diameter as covariates. New shoot length and leaf biomass were significantly influenced by fertiliser and clippings separately not by their interaction (P=0.005, P=0.001; P=0.043, P,0.001) respectively. Clipping treatment significantly influenced ADL at the end of the experimental period (P=0.048). None of the studied fixed factors significantly influenced N, flavonoids, CT, NDF, and ADF at the end of the experiment. Marula saplings growing along a productivity gradient tend to compensate by new shoot productivity (number and length) in response to intermediate clipping but this response did not reflect the compensatory ability of total aboveground biomass, because tree height and stem diameter were not increased. Severe clippings and defoliation treatment induced defence responses regardless of fertiliser rates, thus suggesting carbon limitations. The results from this study also indicated that physical responses nto a single clipping event persist for longer than chemical responses do.
- ItemImpact of soil acidity on groundnut productivity in Mpumalanga and KwaZulu - Natal Province(University of Zululand, 2016) Vilane, Nkiza Michael; Zharare, G.E; Zobolo, A.MGroundnut [Arachis hypogaea L.] is grown on sandy or sandy loam soil by the smallholders in the lowveld region of Mpumalanga and the Northern coast of KwaZulu-Natal. These soils are highly susceptible to leaching, which leads to acid-soil infertility. The goal of the current study was to examine the fertility status of the soils where groundnuts are grown traditionally in Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal in relation to groundnut production with a special emphasis on acid soil infertility factors which include low pH, nutrient deficiencies and toxic levels of manganese [Mn]. First, a soil survey was conducted in the two areas to assess the fertility status of the soils, in which chemical analyses were done for the top 10 cm, 10-40 cm and 40-60 cm soil depth layer. This was followed by two sets of field experiments that examined the performance of groundnut in these soils with and without lime application. The first experiment [Experiment 1] compared the yield performance of 16 groundnut Varieties in very acid soils at Manguzi in the Northern KwaZulu-Natal and Lowveld College of Agriculture farm near Nelspruit in Mpumalanga lowveld during the 2008-2009 season. In the second experiment [Experiment 2], six varieties selected from Experiment 1 were tested in acid soils during the 2009-2010 season to determine their yield responses to three rates [0, 750 and 1500 kg/ha] of calcitic and dolomitic limes at the Lowveld College of Agriculture farm and calcitic lime at Manguzi. The soils were generally acidic at both sites and low in mineral nutrients. The soils at Nelspruit were particularly deficient in K [22 to 107 mg/kg], and low in Ca [136 to 445 mg/kg] and Mg [ 28 to 96.6 mg/kg] and differed in this respect from the soils at Manguzi which had higher K [126 to 200 mg/kg], Ca [396 to 1277 mg/kg] and Mg [111 to 166 mg/kg] concentrations whose ranges were substantially above the ranges [40 to 88 mg/kg for K, 100 to 250 mg/kg for Ca and 10 to 30 mg/kg for Mg] considered adequate for groundnut. The soils in Manguzi and Nelspruit were also sufficient in Zn and Mn as the ranges of these nutrients were between 0.4 to 26.1 mg/kg for Zn and 3 to 24 mg/kg for Mn, which were within the ranges [0.5 to 1.0 mg/kg for Zn and 3 to 7 mg/kg for Mn] considered adequate for groundnut. However, at Lowveld College of Agriculture farm these nutrients were higher than at Manguzi. The sites sampled differed in pH, Ca, Mg, K, P, Fe, Zn, and Mn distribution down the soil profile, but there was no definite trend in the distribution patterns of the nutrients. The soil pH was highly correlated with Mg at Nelspruit, but at Manguzi, the pH was most correlated with Ca in the 10 to 40 cm soil layer. In Experiment 1, Anel [≥ 1709 kg/ha], ICGV 95714 [1457 kg/ha] and Inkanyezi [1456 kg/ha] yielded well in terms of grain yield under low soil pH conditions in the Mpumalanga lowveld, but at Manguzi the varieties that had outstanding performance under low soil pH were Inkanyezi, Mwenje, ICGV 99529 and RGV-784 which yielded 2358 kg/ha, 1664 kg/ha, 1599 kg/ha and 1444 kg/ha of grain yield, respectively. The application of lime selectively improved the yields of the varieties. Furthermore, the response of the varieties (Anel, ICGV 95714 and Inkanyezi) to lime application at Lowveld College differed from that at Manguzi. The ability of the test varieties to tolerate soil acidity differed. Varieties JL -24, Inkanyezi, RGV -784 and Rambo were highly sensitive to soil acidity, since their grain yields increased substantially when the lime rates were increased at the Lowveld College of Agriculture farm and at Manguzi. By contrast, varieties Kwarts and ICGV 90071 were insensitive to liming as their grain yields did not respond to liming at the Lowveld College of Agriculture farm. Also, Rambo was insensitive to liming at Manguzi. The variety Kwarts was found to be better suited for acidic soil conditions at Lowveld College of Agriculture farm whereas at Manguzi, Rambo was found suitable for acidic conditions. Groundnut varieties JL-24, RGV-784 and Inkanyezi performed best under half and the recommended lime rates at Lowveld College of Agriculture farm. At Manguzi, Inkanyezi performed outstandingly under half (750 kg/ha) and recommended (1500 kg/ha) lime rate. Of the two limes sources tested at Lowveld College of Agriculture farm, calcitic lime was found suitable as the mean of grain yields were higher in half and recommended lime rates compared to the dolomitic lime. It was noted that in some cases, there was in fact a reduction of yield in some varieties in lime-amended soils. This was most conspicuous for varieties Kwarts at Lowveld College Agriculture farm and Rambo at Manguzi. This could have been caused by interference of Ca and Mg on the uptake of micronutrients such as e.g. Zn or Mn.
- ItemEffect of microbial ecosystem from wild herbivores browsing tanniferous plants on goat rumen fibrolytic activity(University of Zululand, 2016) Msimango, Nokwethemba Nqobile Philile; Fon, F.N.Ruminant have developed advanced microbial ecosystem for digesting fibrous feedstuffs over the past years. The efficiency of harnessing energy from these forages is still a major problem as less than 60% of forages consumed are still passed out as faeces. Many factors have been associated with the poor breakdown of these forages including; complexity of fibre in forage types, inefficient microbes, microbial population, low rumen pH and presence of anti-nutritional compounds (lignin and alkaloids, saponnins and tannin). Therefore, understanding microbial ecosystems’ activities in ruminants is an essential step towards improving tanniferous browsers’ utilisation especially in goats which are often supplemented in winter during forage shortages. The study was conducted to identify potential rumen microbial ecosystems browsing tanniferous forages that might have evolved in their ability to degrade plant fibre in the presence of tannin that can potentially be used to improve domestic goat browse utilisation. Experiment 1 investigated the fibrolytic potential of microbial ecosystems giraffe, kudu, impala and consortia (A1 (giraffe + kudu, 1:1), A2 (giraffe + impala, 1:1), A3 (kudu + impala, 1:1), A4 (giraffe + kudu + impala, 1:1:1)). Crude protein enzyme extracts (CPZ) from fresh faecal samples were precipitated by 60% ammonium sulphate and assayed for exocellulase, endocellulase and hemicellulase by incubating with crystalline cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose and xylan at 38℃ at pH of 5.5 for 1, 2, and 48 h, respectively. Enzyme specific activities were defined as μg of reducing sugar/mg CPZ. In vitro fermentation study was done by transferring 33 mL of fresh faecal inoculum into 67 mL of salivary buffer containing 1 g Acacia sieberiana and incubating for 72 h at 38℃. Apparent degradability (APD), true degradability (TD), neutral detergent fibre degradability (NDFdeg), acid detergent fibre degradability (ADFdeg), microbial yield (MY), metabolisable energy (ME) and total gas emitted (Gas) were measured. Cellulases, hemicellulase and in vitro degradability studies showed that microbial ecosystems from wild browsers (especially impala) and consortia possess a higher (P<0.05) potential to digest tanniferous forages with less enteric gas production than observed in goats, hence could be exploited as feed additives for improving digestibility and reducing enteric gas production in goats. In experiment 2, the effect of tannins on the fibrolytic potential of microbial ecosystems from goats, wild giraffe, kudu, impala and consortia (A1, A2, A3 and A4) were monitored. The method was the same as in experiment 1 except for the addition of 10% tannic acid. A microbial ecosystem treated with 10% tannin showed higher (P<0.05) fibrolytic enzyme activities and digestibility parameters compared to the control. The goat ecosystem showed some degree of adaptability to increased tannin but microbial ecosystems from wild browsers (impala and kudu) and consortia (A1, A2 and A3) showed a higher potential to digest tanniferous forages. The results demonstrated that wild herbivores especially impala and A1 consortia can tolerate minimal changes in tannin concentrations. Experiment 3 assessed the effect of in vitro inoculation of goat microbial ecosystems with inocula from wild herbivores (impala, kudu and giraffe) on in vitro fermentation, gas production and cellulase activity in goats. The method was similar to that of experiment 2 but for goat microbial consortia (N1 (goat + impala, 1:1), N2 (goat + kudu, 1:1), N3 (goat + giraffe+ kudu, 1:1:1) and N4 (goat + giraffe + kudu + impala, 1:1:1:1)). Manipulation of the goat ecosystem with microbes from the wild generally increased (P<0.05) cellulase and hemicellulase activities as presented by their high hemicellulase, endocellulase and exocellulase activities. The highest (P<0.05) NDFdeg, ADFdeg and TD were observed in N3 while HEMdeg and CELLdeg were high in the N1ecosystem. Therefore, wild ruminant browsers may be harbouring important potential fibrolytic microbial population with relatively high tannin tolerance which can be used to improve the browses digestibility of goats. The final experimental chapter monitored the effect of adding polyethylene glycol 4000 (PEG) to goat microbial consortia in vitro degradability of tanniferous feeds. The results showed that 5% PEG supplementation generally increased (P<0.05) hemicellulase, endocellulase and exocellulase activities in goats’ consortia when compared to the control. Digestibility of fibre was lower for diets not treated with PEG. Apart from N3, PEG increased (P<0.05) dry matter degradability of Acacia sieberiana but not microbial yield. The improvement of enzyme activities and dry matter digestibility upon addition of PEG in goat consortia highlights the inhibitory effects still possessed by tannins even when inoculated with potential fibrolytic microbes from wild browsers. Therefore, microbial ecosystems from wild browsers can contribute potential fibrolytic microbes with relatively high tannin tolerance that can improve forage digestibility and reduce enteric gas production in goats.
- ItemFactors affecting the food security status and participation in food security intervention programmes in Maphumulo(University of Zululand, 2017) Ngema, Primrose Zama; Sibanda, M.; Musemwa, L.This study assessed the factors affecting the food security status and participation in food security intervention programmes in Maphumulo. A number of food security intervention programmes were introduced in KZN Province to ensure food security. However, household food security status remains a concern in South Africa and there is noted a lack of participation in the intervention programmes. Using a proportional stratified sampling procedure the study sampled 495 respondents (330 “One Home One Garden” programme beneficiaries and 165 non-participating households) in Maphumulo. To estimate a household’s food security, the Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) and Household Food Consumption Score (HFCS) measures were employed. Food consumption pattern were characterized by a low average HDDS of 3.1 in “One Home One Garden” group and 3.67 in non- participating households. However, the majority (65%) of the “One Home One Garden” participating households had an acceptable (≥35) HFCS whilst the majority (54%) of non–participating households had a borderline (21.5 to 35) HFCS. A Binary Logistic made binary logistic model was employed in two instances: firstly to identify the factors influencing the food security status and secondly to determine participation in government food security intervention programmes. In the first instance, 5 out of 13 variables were significant. Age, household, household farming experience and household receiving extension support were found to have a positive influence on the food security status of the household while household size and access to credit had a negative influence. In the second instance, 6 variables of the 14 were found to be significant. Household size, household income and household food security status had a positive influence on the household’s participation in government food security intervention programmes while age, educational level parameters and farm size had a negative influence. The majority (71%) of the respondents were totally dissatisfied with government intervention programmes such as the mechanization support and quality of government support received. The study therefore proposes the following recommendations aimed at enhancing level of participation and the food security status of households participating in food security initiatives: the government should support households by making available improved inputs such as hybrid seeds that give farmers better high yields, and marketable and high quality output which fetch better prices in the market. High returns stimulate participation in food security programmes.
- ItemThe profitability, feeding regimes and contribution of small-scale poultry production projects to rural household livelihood security in KwaMkhwanazi traditional ward, KwaZulu Natal, South Africa.(University of Zululand, 2017) Mhlongo, Simangele Rejoice; Kunene, N.Poverty is a common phenomenon amongst rural households in Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa. Estimates have indicated KwaZulu-Natal as the most populous province in South Africa, containing about 21.0 % of the country’s population. The majority, more than half of the population in the KZN province resides in rural areas. Rural households are engaged in many livelihood strategies to alleviate poverty. Livelihood strategies used by rural households include community gardens, one home one garden, large stock, small stock and poultry production. The most prevalent livelihood strategy is poultry production since it needs less space and less growing time compared to large and small stock and income is generated over a short period. Poultry production is reported as important for income generation and poverty alleviation in many rural areas in Africa. The objectives of this study were to describe the socio economic status of households participating in the poultry production project, describe assets and resources available to households, describe livelihood strategies of participating households and to investigate profitability of small-scale poultry production projects. This study employed mixed methods i.e. The combination of qualitative and quantitative research designs, because they complement each other. The quantitative research design in this current study was composed comprised a survey and experiment. The survey was a situational analysis survey. The experiment was on- station broiler experimental research which compared broiler production in summer and winter. Documentary reviews were done to review existing data that relate to this study. The field of research was an ethnographic study which included observing and interviewing people in their natural setting by interacting with them to gain understanding of the social world. The data collection instruments for quantitative data were structured situation analysis survey interview schedule, broiler record cards for on- station experiments and for summer and winter data for individually -managed and group- managed broiler projects. The situational analysis of broiler production revealed that broiler production was indeed an important livelihood strategy in the study area. There were 17 group-managed broiler projects and 15 individually- managed broiler projects. The two groups of projects were further divided into different categories according to their production type as follows: raising day old chicks to marketing stage, buying matured chickens and selling them at higher price, raising day old chicks to marketing stage, and buying matured chickens and selling them at higher price. The economic study investigated the profitability of broilers under commercial and subsistence production systems production systems. Study conducted at University of Zululand, a total of 400 broiler chicks were used for the experiment. For the small scale production the farmers were responsible for the management of their broilers and taking their own records. The researcher assisted them with record keeping. The study suggested that in general broiler production was profitable. The results from the community show that there was profitability for all the groups involved in the study. The controlled experiment investigated the comparative performance of a standard and a modified feeding regime on the performance of broilers fed commercial diets at the University of Zululand poultry unit. The experiment was conducted in summer and in winter at the University of Zululand poultry unit. A total of 400 broiler chicks were used in the experiment. In winter, 200 day-old chicks were raised in two cages assigned with 100 chicks each. In summer 200 day-old chicks were also raised in two cages each with 100 chicks. Feed for the broiler was from Meadow Feeds Millers purchased from local retailers. The first group (Diet 1) was fed according to Meadow Feeds recommendations and the second group (Diet 2) was fed according to the modified University of Zululand poultry unit programme. The study revealed that the modified diet 2 led to higher feed conversion efficiency and higher growth performance of broilers compared with the modified.
- ItemViability of government funded small-scale broiler projects in Northern KwaZulu-Natal(University of Zululand, 2017) Mdletshe, Sifiso Themba Clement; Sibanda, M.; Obi, A.Broiler production is one of the largest segments of South African agriculture. The Kwazulu-Natal government of South Africa embarked on funding small-scale broiler projects since 2011/2012 financial year in the Northern region. This study investigated the viability (profitability) of government funded small-scale broiler projects in Northern KwaZulu-Natal. The aim of the study was to determine the viability and the factors that affect the profitability of government funded small-scale broiler projects in Kwazulu-Natal. The study employed a gross margin analysis to assess the viability of the government funded small-scale broiler projects and a multiple regression analysis to determine the factors influencing the profitability of government funded small-scale broiler projects. The data used in this study was primary data collected from 75 government funded small-scale broiler projects in Northern Kwa-Zulu namely in uMkhanyakude, uThungulu and Zululand Districts. Simple random sampling procedure was used. Social Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) program was used to analyse data. The results showed that production challenges included lack of technical knowledge of producing broilers, high input costs and marketing challenges included long distances to the market, low price of live broiler and lack of access to formal markets. The gross margins and gross profit margin analysis shows that the government funded small-scale broiler producers have a positive gross and profit margin however they are not as much profitable and not doing well when compared to Rainbow Chicken (alarge scale broiler producer). Results from the multi regression analysis indicate that gender, farm gate price, access to extension services all have a positive relationship to gross margins (used as a proxy for profitability) and access to market information had a negative relationship. The study recommends that the government funded small-scale broiler producers must use formal markets in order to sustain their broiler production.
- ItemFactors affecting productivity of small-scale sugarcane farmers in Mona and Sonkombo villages(University of Zululand, 2017) Zulu, Nkosingiphile SamuelSugarcane is regarded as one of the most important crops in South Africa. The sugar industry has a pivotal role to play in the socio-economic development of rural areas. Small-scale sugarcane farmers are faced with various challenges that affect their productivity. The main objective of this study was to determine the factors affecting productivity of small-scale sugarcane farmers. The study was carried out in two selected villages namely, Mona and Sonkombo of Ndwedwe Local Municipality, employing a quantitative research approach. The study systematically randomly selected 100 smallscale sugarcane farmers (50 in each village), drawn from small-scale farmers who delivered cane to Tongaat-Hulett mills. To identify the production challenges faced by small-scale sugarcane farmers in Mona and Sonkombo villages. Descriptive statistics were used to describe the farmers’ characteristics and their production challenges. The study showed that the majority (69%) of the small-scale farmers were female, and a large proportion (67%) was beyond 50 years old of age, and the study also reveals that a greater proportion of respondents (48%) had no formal education. Most of the respondents (88%) indicated that they had access to credit, 80% respondents indicated that they received extension support and about 44% of respondents owned <1ha of land with the average sugarcane production of 50t/ha. The farmers were constrained by production challenges which include crop nutrition challenges such as late and inadequate fertilizer application, about 86% respondents stated that there was late weed control practised six months later after harvesting which likely resulted to low productivity. To determine the factors influencing small-scale sugarcane productivity in Mona and Sonkombo villages, the study used a regression analysis of the amended/hybrid Cobb-Douglas Production Function. The results of the regressionanalysis reveals that age, level of education, extension support, non-farm income, landsize, access to credit and amount of urea applied were found to be positively associated with productivity whereas labour, amount of basal fertilizer and chemicals applied were negatively correlated with productivity of sugarcane. The results suggest that, in order for small-scale sugarcane farmers to realise higher yields per hectare, they have to apply theoptimum amounts of the inputs and at the right time.
- ItemEffect of the methanolic extract of Cassia abbreviata in the oxidative stress caused by overcrowding in indigenous chickens(University of Zululand, 2017) Jobe, Martha Cebile; Kunene, N.W; Opoku, A.RIndigenous chickens are the largest livestock species that are widely domesticated by rural farmers with poor management practices. Poor management affects the growth performance and health of chickens in various ways. Due to high demand and poor management of chickens, overcrowding has become one of the influencing factors that retard growth. Overcrowding results in metabolic disturbances, causing excessive free radicals production that leads to oxidative stress. The oxidative stress can be managed by introducing radical scavengers, the antioxidants. Interestingly, natural antioxidants from medicinal plants are being adopted for use mainly because the synthetic antioxidants have been observed to have side effects. The aim of this work was to assess the effect of the stocking density on the growth performance of indigenous chickens and to evaluate the effect of Cassia abbreviata extract on the oxidative stress in chickens caused by overcrowding. Phytochemical screening of Cassia abbreviata revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, tannins and saponins. Methanolic stem extract showed strong scavenging of 2,2’-azino-bis-(3-ethlybenzothiozoline-6-sulphonic acid), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrozly, superoxide anion and hydroxyl radical; however poor scavenging of nitric oxide was observed. Reduction potential of the plant extract was dose dependent; the iron chelating activity was poor. The stocking density measures the number of chickens kept in a particular area and in this study, the number of chickens kept in a house had a great effect on the growth rate and body weight of chickens. In the 8th week the mean body weight at low stocking density was 2.743 ± 0.216 kg and for high stocking density it was 1.637 ± 0.004 kg. The serum levels of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) were significantly higher (p<0.05) in chickens receiving the extract of Cassia abbreviata compared to the control group. The concentration for extract had an effect on the serum levels. The growth rate of the chickens was also higher in the Cassia abbreviata treated groups than that of the control chickens (p<0.05). Cassia abbreviata was able to inhibit lipid peroxidation as the malondiadehyde (MDA) content was significantly lower in the treated groups. Apparently, the plant’s extract stimulated growth in chickens. It is contingent that the plant extract exhibited antioxidant activity that inhibits the oxidative damages in overcrowded chickens. Histological results revealed that high dosages cause damages in the liver, thus concentration should be considered.
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