Geography and Environmental Studies

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African tourist potential in the Empangeni-Richards Bay complex
(University of Zululand, 1987) Mwandla, Ndodentsha Daniel; Magi, L.M.
The aim of this project is to analyse scientifically the Black tourist potentially from the geographic perspective. Mitchell (1979) claims that the geographer as an analyst has the ultimate goal of obtaining insight and understanding of the spatial allocation of resources, relationships between a man his environment, or the complexity of regions. The researcher therefore, undertakes such an academic exercise of analysing the spatial aspects of tourism at the Empangeni - Richards Bay Complex.
Analysing the impact of and response to the 2019 tornado in Harry Gwala District Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
(2022) Methula, Nozuko
This study aims to analyse the impact of and response to the 2019 tornado disaster in Harry Gwala District Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. To achieve this aim, this research utilized mixed research methods to collect and analyse data. Questionnaires were used to collect data from households while structured interviews were used to gather information from municipal officials. Data was analysed through SPSS and a thematic approach. The findings show that in terms of the occurrence and distribution of tornado disasters in Harry Gwala District Municipality between 1989 and 2019, the most affected municipalities were NDZ and UMzimkhulu. Regarding the socio-economic impacts of the 2019 tornado in the study area, it was discovered that the uMzimkhulu and uBuhlebezwe municipalities had the most adversely affected households because of mud building material used by many households in these municipalities. In terms of coping strategies, the research found that people have no awareness regarding their respective disaster management offices, hence their immediate response was to call their councillors. Concerning the government response, there was a collaboration between all relevant stakeholders from the public and private sectors. The relief provided to households included food parcels and blankets, however, road and network infrastructure were reported to be a challenge, delaying this provision. The results on community perceptions indicate that a large proportion of respondents believed that the tornado was caused by iNkanyamba while others believed that it was caused by God’s anger, only a few understood that it was a result of climatological conditions. This research suggests the disaster management centre should invest in research on these incidences so that they are well documented and understood. It is also suggested that housing development should also be implemented in rural areas and there is a need for continuous community workshops to educate people on natural disasters and effective response strategies.
Analysing the impact of Covid-19 on the livelihoods of communities adjacent to protected areas: Machibini community and Hluhluwe Umfolozi Park
(2022) Mkhize, Mawande; Ntuli, NR Zharare, GE and Zimudzi, C
This study aims to analyse how the Covid-19 pandemic affected the livelihoods of the Machibini community adjacent to Hluhluwe Imfolozi Park (HIP). Its objectives are to a) analyse the livelihood activities of the Machibini community before the Covid-19 pandemic, b) evaluate the impact of Covid-19 on the livelihood activities of the Machibini community, c) evaluate the local community’s access to resources found within the HIP during the pandemic, d) explore the coping strategies utilised by the community members to deal with the impacts of Covid-19 and, e) propose strategies which can be implemented to assist rural communities to respond to disasters. To achieve this a qualitative research methodology was used in which the community members, the traditional authority of the Machibini community as well as the HIP park official were interviewed. The findings show that the Machibini community engage in various livelihoods. While some livelihoods require resources from the HIP, others do not. The pandemic affected the livelihoods of the respondents in different measures. Some respondents lost their only income-generating schemes, while others managed to maintain their livelihoods. The results also show that the respondents were granted access to the park to extract the resources they needed although the harvesting period was cut short during the pandemic. To cope with the challenges brought about by the pandemic, some respondents engaged in entirely new livelihoods such as selling chickens and fast foods. Based on these findings, the study recommends that the Hluhluwe Imfolozi Park (HIP) and the traditional authority must work together to establish a system that will ensure that information about the availability of employment opportunities in the park is disseminated to every part of this community. In this way, everyone has a fair chance of getting employment. It is also imperative for the park to make their employees' contracts permanent. The Machibini community also needs life skills programmes and other necessary facilities that will foster their livelihoods. The community members, through the assistance of the park, can open an online store that is featured on the HIP’s website since there is a larger audience there to sell their handicrafts to. This way, even if the people’s crafts are not sold physically due to disruptions such as the Covid-19 pandemic, they will be available and sold on this online platform.
An analysis of the land rehabilitation programme of the Tronox mine: Environmental justice and the community of Gobandlovu
(University of Zululand, 2020) Phungula, Philani Theophilus
The aim of the study is to analyse the land rehabilitation programme of the Tronox mine at Gobandlovu. In pursuit of this aim, the objectives of this research are to (a) track the process of rehabilitation in Gobandlovu using Remote Sensing, (b) establish if the Tronox rehabilitation programme is in line with MPRDA guidelines and (c) explore the perceptions of the community of Gobandlovu towards the Tronox rehabilitation programme. To achieve these, the research utilised a mixed methods approach, in the form of the explanatory sequential design. Data was collected using remote sensing techniques to download satellite images of the study area and then later analysed using GIS software. Remote sensing techniques were used to track and detect change through the land rehabilitation process, in which yearly mean averages were downloaded and analysed on ArcMap to visualise the normalised vegetation index of the period from 2002 to 2018.The spatiotemporal yearly mean averages were then classified in ArcMap to track the change in the two classes of bare soil and vegetation over the 17 years’ period (2002-2018). The second part involved the use of qualitative techniques. This was done through field observations as well as the administration of qualitative questionnaires on the residents of Gobandlovu and the officials of Tronox mine. While the results have shown that Tronox was able to rehabilitate the land it had mined on, it did not successfully fulfil the dictates of the principles of environmental justice in relation to the community of Gobandlovu. This is because most of the respondents interviewed stated that, not only were they not integrated in the whole process of mine rehabilitation, they have also not fully benefitted from the mining. This suggests that, Tronox attempted to achieve restorative justice but the same cannot be said about distributive justice.
An analysis of the sustainability of small-scale farming in Dukuduku, Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa.
(University of Zululand, 2020) Mashiyane, Zamokuhle Nothani
Redressing the injustices of the past apartheid government has been the core-focus of the South African government since the birth of democracy in 1994. The variety of rural based policies, like land restitution have been introduced in order to restore the dignity of people and by these means economically empower them (to productively utilise the land and by these means attain rural and agrarian transformation) in the former homelands who were forcefully removed from their land due to racially discriminatory laws of the apartheid government. However, this has been met with several challenges such as poor monitoring and evaluation by the state in certain areas, which has resulted in the maladministration of resources, poor market access as well as poor access to credit. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the sustainability of small-scale farming (with emphasis on the credit access, market access, improved infrastructure as well as state intervention) in Dukuduku, an area in which the community benefited from land restitution. The aim was achieved through four objectives. First, to map the spatial extent of small-scale farming in the study area from 20012019. Second, to examine the nature of economic opportunities arising from smallscale farming in the study area. Third, to explore perceptions of small-scale farmers in Dukuduku towards land restitution programme. Fourth, to assess the sustainability of small-scale farming in relationship to agrarian transformation in the study area. The study employed the convergent parallel mixed method design to collect and analyse the data. The findings suggest that, while small scale farming has increased significantly in the study area, the farmers continue to face challenges relating to inadequate agricultural support and extension services. This has undermined the sustainability of small scale farming activities and by extension agrarian transformation. The study recommends that, this calls for proactive and effective agricultural support and extension services by the government so that the utilisation of restituted land for agricultural purpose (small-scale farming in this study), is productive, sustainable and transformational.
Assessing coping strategies of female street traders during COVID-19 in the City of UMhlathuze, Kwa-Zulu Natal.
(2022) Sithole, Makhosazane Nokwanda Amingoh.
The informal economy is an essential part of the Global South. Over the years it has provided an opportunity for many to become essential economic and social actors, a majority of these being women. Street traders are susceptible to, among others, socio economic shocks, crime, and income irregularity. This means in the case of a disturbance to normal operations; street traders must adapt to ensure that they retain their livelihoods. Against this backdrop, this study assesses the coping strategies of female street traders during the COVID-19 pandemic in the City of UMhlathuze, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The specific objectives of the study are to, a) analyse street trading operations of female informal economic operators in the City of UMhlathuze, b) examine the capital, infrastructural and political challenges experienced by female street traders as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic in the city of UMhlathuze, c) analyse the coping strategies used by female street traders during the COVID-19 pandemic in the City of UMhlathuze, and d) assess the government’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic’s impact on female street traders in the study area. This research uses Feminist Marxism and Feminist Intersectionality as the theoretical lenses to critically analyse the coping strategies of FSTs in the City of UMhlathuze during the COVID-19 pandemic. In terms of methodology, the study employed a qualitative approach with 43 purposively sampled Female Street Traders (FSTs) interviewed at KwaDlangezwa, Empangeni CBD, and Alkantstrand Beach. The study found that in the City of UMhlathuze the nature of street trading operations for FSTs includes trading in second-hand clothes, cooked food, fruit, and vegetables. The findings of this study also show that within the City of UMhlathuze, FSTs faced capital, operational and political challenges which impacted their operations during the COVID-19 pandemic. These challenges included increased procurement prices, inadequate infrastructure, and the lack of street trading permits. In response to these challenges, FSTs had to modify their operations by becoming mobile, altering the nature of their trade or in some instances working together. This study proposes that FSTs should form networks that can be beneficial to them in times of crisis. The research also recommends that government departments should consider the needs of FSTs in disaster management so that future policies and responses do not marginalize FSTs.
Assessing the contribution of informal cross-border trade to regional integration in the Southern African Development Community using Social Networking Analysis (SNA)
(University of Zululand, 2021) Mzimela, Nokubonga Zuziwe
A majority of people within the SADC region pursue informal cross-border trade because of its socio-economic development impacts. The objectives of the study are to; a) examine the nature and dynamics of informal cross-border trading activities in selected Southern African Development Community (SADC) border regions; b) assess the extent to which SADC regional trade policies promote ICBT in the study areas; c) map and assess using social networking analysis, the contribution of informal cross border traders’ activities to regional integration in the Southern African Development Community and d) propose strategies for enhancing the role of ICBT in regional integration in the study area. To achieve these objectives, the researcher deployed a qualitative research methodology, and the data was collected using interviews and observations. The data was analysed following strategies of qualitative data analysis which are thematic analysis and social networking analysis. Social networking analysis was also done by using the collected data to demonstrate the role played by ICBTs in contributing to regional integration. The results show that most people engage in informal cross-border trading due to drivers such as unemployment, lack of skills, and poverty. They buy and sell a variety of goods. The SNA showed that ICBT leads to regional integration from below because the ICBTs frequently travel across borders to purchase goods and resell them at their countries of origin, therefore, economic integration between the countries involved is manifested. Based on this, it is recommended that SADC countries must recognize the importance of ICBTs by implementing policies or revisiting existing policies that demonstrate exclusiveness rather than inclusiveness of the ICBTs. Such policies already implemented include the SADC Trade Protocol which presently appears to promote formal actors like registered businesses which fit in well with the neoclassical theory of regional integration. SADC countries must also limit the application of stringent border controls at the borders by implementing regulations that apply equally to both the formal and informal traders. In addition, the SADC governments, policymakers, and other stakeholders must inform/educate border officials about the regional trade policies implemented, so that they can understand the situation and contribution of cross-border traders and ensure that they treat the traders with fairness and dignity, without enforcing acts of corruption at the border.
Assessing the effects of large-scale commercial farming on the livelihoods of farmworkers in King Cetshwayo District Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa
(University of Zululand, 2021) Nene, Lindokuhle Siyabonga
In most African countries including South Africa, the role of commercial farming is known especially in its contribution to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and food security. As much as these contributions are known, what is not clear is its contribution to the livelihoods of farmworkers who ensure that commercial farms remain viable and thus produce enough food while also contributing to GDP through exports, among others. Because of these reasons, this study explores the effects of commercial farming on the livelihoods of farmworkers in the three commercial farms, namely, Fowler farm, Hullets farm, and Farm Secure located in the King Cetshwayo District Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal province. To achieve this, the study set out four objectives which include (a) assessing livelihood assets of farmworkers in the study area, (b) analysing how employment on commercial farms in the study area affects the livelihood contexts in terms of, among others, the nature of social relations, provision of services, and the governance of farmworkers, (c) examining the employment and living conditions of farmworkers on commercial farms, and how they cope with them, and (d) evaluating the extent of the farmworkers` awareness of South African labour laws and rights. The Sustainable Livelihood Framework was used to provide a theoretical framework for the study. In terms of research methodology, this study adopted pragmatism as a research paradigm. This informed the research design, which is mixed methods research design. Data was collected through the use of surveys, Focus Group Discussions, and one-on-one in-depth interviews. Data analysis followed the mixed nature of this study in which quantitative data was analysed using Microsoft Excel and SPSS while qualitative data was analysed using ATLAS.ti v.8.4 to formulate themes as per the objectives of the study. The study found that the contribution of commercial farming on the livelihoods of farmworkers is directly linked to the livelihood contexts that the farmworkers are exposed to on commercial farms. Farmworkers with farming skills especially men hold high paying jobs on commercial farms and thus attain more livelihood assets. Issues of patriarchy and masculinity are prevalent on commercial farms and mostly affect women farmworkers who are found holding low paying jobs. Living and working conditions of farmworkers in all the three farms are mostly fair, with limited challenges of housing and working environment reported by farmworkers. The study provide evidence that the lives of poor people especially in rural areas are moderately improved by commercial farming. This indicates that commercial farming assists farmworkers to alleviate poverty and provides them with food security which in turn improves their livelihoods.
Assessing the influence of natural resource conservation on the livelihoods of KwaNibela, KwaZulu-Natal
(University of Zululand, 2020) Maseko, Zwelakhe Thulasizwe Mascot
The purpose of this study was to assess the influence of natural resource conservation on the livelihoods of the people of KwaNibela, KwaZulu-Natal (KZN). The objectives of this study were to (a) identify the natural resource conservation initiatives and programmes implemented by iSimangaliso Wetland Park, (b) evaluate the extent to which the community of KwaNibela benefited from the natural resources conserved by iSimangaliso Wetland Park (c) explore the perceptions and attitudes of indigenous people towards iSimangaliso Wetland Park conservation strategies. This study adopted a mixed methods approach in order to understand the perceptions of people concerning natural resource conservation and its influence on their livelihoods. The results of the study indicated that the conservation strategy utilised by iSimangaliso Wetland Park is co-management, which means the park collaborates with land claimants in the area in order to preserve natural resources. However, a significant part of the community of KwaNibela did not feel fully involved in conservation since they do not benefit from it and they also felt that they were not fully consulted. The results further revealed that natural resource conservation adversely affects some of the people’s livelihoods through limited access to natural resources, such as land for agriculture, banning of hunting activities and predation of livestock by wild animals that escape from the park. These suggests that, although conservation is vital for the preservation of natural resources, there is a need for effective collaborative approaches which should also benefit the community and make them an integral part of conservation programmes. Differently stated, the co-management approaches which are currently followed are not effective and should evolve beyond the level of tokenism. This would ensure that people are fully involved and their livelihoods are enhanced through clearer and fairer benefit sharing arrangements.
Assessing the socio-economic impacts of rural-urban migration on KwaNokweja, Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa
(2022) Lunika, Buhle Adorable
This study aims to assess the socio-economic impacts of rural-urban migration in KwaNokweja, Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa. The specific objectives of the study are to (a) analyse the causes of rural-urban migration in KwaNokweja, (b) assess the socio-economic impacts of rural-urban migration with a focus on poverty, agricultural production, and education in KwaNokweja and the implication of the COVID-19 pandemic on these, (c) explore the perception of residents in KwaNokweja towards rural-urban migration, and (d) evaluate the local municipality’s responses to the consequences of rural-urban migration in KwaNokweja. A mixed research methodology was adopted to address these objectives. In the qualitative part of the study, interviews were conducted with the relevant authorities including traditional authorities, municipal officers, and the ward councillor. For the quantitative dimension of the study, questionnaires were administered to community members from KwaNokweja. A thematic analysis was used to analyse qualitative data whereas SPSS was used to analyse quantitative data and generate descriptive statistics. The findings of this study confirm that migration is a complex and dynamic phenomenon that is influenced by a multitude of factors. In terms of the socio economic development impacts, it was found that migration has positive impacts in terms of remittances which enhanced the livelihoods of people in KwaNokweja. The study found that households which received remittances were able to afford to spend more on food, household needs, and education and had more assets than their non receiving counterparts. This implies that migration plays a significant role in enhancing food security and reducing poverty in KwaNokweja. As a result, most of the participants in this study noted that they were in support of migration to urban areas because it improves their socio-economic livelihoods. Most people in KwaNokweja view migration as a route out of poverty, and a positive livelihood strategy. However, some people expressed that they discourage the migration of people from KwaNokweja to urban areas due to several factors including among others, negative experiences, the abandonment of elders and belongings, and the transfer of skills to enhance the development of urban areas at the expense of rural areas. As a result, Ubuhlebezwe Local Municipality has devised several strategies aimed at promoting rural development and discouraging the migration of communities from the municipal’s jurisdiction to urban areas. Based on these findings, this study recommends that the xii focus should be on job creation and encouraging entrepreneurship through agriculture, skills development training and investments in small businesses. This will not only decrease dependence on remittances, but it will encourage people to generate their own income, disincentivize migration, promote job creation, attract investments, and enhance local economic development.
Black people's cognitions of natural recreation resources in the Natal North-Coastal region
(1986) Magi, Lindisizwe Maurice.; Butler-Adam, J.F.; Nieman, W.A.
This study was designed to investigate how Black people in the Natal north-coastal region cognize natural recreation resources as they are defined at present. The basis of the research is modeled on the premise that because of existing spatial and socio-economic inequalities in South Africa, Black people may well have a negative attitude towards natural recreation resources. In essence the aims of the study are to: (1) Identify value systems strongly associated with and involved in the formulation of the images and cognitions which Black people have towards natural recreation resources and facilities. (2) Reveal the cognitions which Black people have with regard to the identification, management, utilization and conservation of natural recreation resources and facilities. The procedure used two separate sample populations. The first survey (N=515) investigated the general population's cognitions of and behaviour towards natural recreation resources and facilities. The second survey (N=35) sought to establish the actual background material from organizations or agencies engaged in the administration and management of recreation resources. Data was computer-analyzed using frequencies, univariate procedures and cross tabulations which contained a chi-square test and measures of correlation. These procedures were used to analyze data acquired by means of cognitive statements, photographic images from 24 photographs depicting recreation resources and through use of semantic differential scales. Some of the broad, basic hypotheses the study considers are: (1) That Black people have negative cognitions of natural recreation resources in general; (2) that Black people have a positive frame of mind relating to the aesthetics and conservation of natural recreation resources; (3) that Blacks have a negative cognition of the management of natural recreation resources; and (4) that the current cognitions of natural recreation resources are related to the respondent's "place of residence, standard of education, occupation, sex, age and religion. The study is broadly structured around eight chapters. The first chapter gives an overall orientation to the study and is further methodologically elucidated in Chapter 5. Chapters 2 and 3 discuss the conceptual sources and relationships which exist between geography, recreation, psychology and philosophy. Chapter 3 specifically treats the African philosophical perspectives of the natural recreation environment. On the other hand, chapters 4, 6 and 7 deal with empirical sources in the form of field survey materials of recreation authorities, the general population and their interpretation, respectively. Overall summaries of the study, and of its implications and conclusions are presented in Chapter 8. The major conclusions of the study are: First, that Black people within the north-coastal region of Natal cognize the natural recreation resources positively. Secondly, that whereas there was a positive association of the cognized utilization of natural recreation resources with aesthetic constructs, there was a negative association of the management of these resources with functional constructs such as "inadequate" and "restricted". Thirdly, there were, in general, no significant differences by age, sex, education, occupation and place of residence which affected the cognition and use of resources and facilities either positively or negatively. However, on categorizing the cognitive constructs of recreation resources into "aesthetic" and "functional" attributes, these tended to vary by socio-economic variables. Fourthly, on the strength of the preponderence of cognitive constructs that were aesthetic and abstract, it was concluded that philosophical and cultural value systems are strongly associated with the natural recreation image formulation amongst Black people in the study area. The study has important implications for the management, planning and research of the recreation system in the north-coastal region of Natal. The evaluation of Black cognitions of natural recreation resources is a necessary exercise if the general recreation system in South Africa is to be made equitable and remodelled to cater for every person within the population.
Blacks and the coast: current demands and future aspirations for coastal recreation in the KwaZulu-Natal north coast
(1995) Mwandla, Ndodentsha Daniel; Magi, L.M.
The repeal of the Separate Amenities Act, accompanied by general rise in standard of living among Blacks, greater mobility of people, and the demand for outdoor recreation have brought about the renewed influx of Blacks to seaside or coastal recreation areas. It is, therefore, in this light that this research is undertaken. The focus of the research is on both developed and undeveloped coastal resources whereby recreation needs and aspirations of Black recreators are identified with an aim of providing basic knowledge for future planning, management and development of coastal recreation resources. The reseach problem is formulated within the framework of a demand-and-supply model. It involves the use of coastal recreation resources and facilities by Blacks in KwaZulu-Natal north-coastal region to satisfy their recreation needs. Answers are sought to the following questions: How many people participate in coastal recreation areas and what kind of recreation areas are visited? What is the nature of people who visit coastal locations on recreation trips? What particular characteristics of trips are undertaken by Black recreators? What distances are involved and what is the frequency and duration of visits relating to recreation areas? What characteristic personal and social traits are associated with particular types of participants and non-participants in recreation? Where are the most important recreation resources located and what facilities are offered there? What potential does the region have for future development of recreation? What is the likely role of the coast and seaside in future years? The data was gathered by means of a questionnaire applied to 402 respondents of the Black household population in the KwaZulu-Natal North Coast. Intuitive and discriminant analytical procedures were used to distinguish characteristics of the outdoor recreation resource potential. The analysis incorporates a variety of statistical and graphical techniques. The most important findings of the enquiry are the following: A relatively large percentage of Blacks (68%) do not visit the beach or sea. Walking (35% of the respondents) is the main means of getting to the sea. The majority of people (82%) show a tendency to dislike visiting undeveloped beaches. Data reveals that swimming (48%) seems the most popular recreation activity as against sophisticated activities like boating, caravanning and fishing. The most preferred accommodation by Blacks when undertaking recreation journeys is the hotel (63.7%) as against hutted camps (8.5%). Richards Bay beach, locally known as Alkantstrand, is the most popular recreation area (41.2%) in the study area. Recreation activities demanding no or less expensive equipment are mostly favoured by Blacks. These activities comprise inter alia swimming, relaxing and walking. On the other hand money-demanding recreation activities such as canoeing, sailing, row-boating, water-skiing and motor-boating, are shunned upon. The final considerations or recommendations in the study are that the coastal recreation resource needs proper infrastructure to handle the imminent mass recreation or tourism; the natural recreation bases should be conserved or ecotourism should be practised; and the indigenous populace be included in the development, management and utilization of the coastal recreation resource.
Causes, structure and impacts of the 1992/93 drought in KwaZulu/Natal
(1998) Dube, Lawrence Thembokwakhe; Jury, M.R.
A majority of the population in southern Africa rely on agriculture at a subsistence level for food, or at a more advanced level to generate income, and are therefore susceptible to changes in rainfall and climate. The high incidence of drought since the 1970's (Jury, 1996), and particularly the devastating droughts of 1982/83 (Jury and Levey, 1997) have laid a ground of motivation for a study on circulation changes associated with the 1992/93 drought over KwaZulu/Natal and its impacts. This research analyses the historical context of the 1992/93 drought in KwaZulu/Natal using ECMWF and NCEP/NOAA data at a resolution of 2.5° x 2.5°. To outline the causes and structure of the drought surface and upper-level meteorological data are utilised and impacts are assessed using agricultural production and water resource data. Pentad synoptic weather data for the drought period are composited to establish patterns of circulation and convection over the region, and departures from the historical mean computed. Satellite and conventional data sources are used and time series analysis is undertaken. Outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) and normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) are used as a proxy for convective intensity and for the identification of impacted areas over South Africa. Wind data and derived parameters are employed to explore large-scale dynamical structures. Pongolapoort and Midmar Dams inflow levels, and agricultural production output data from sugar cane and maize industries are used to gauge the severity of the drought. Data analysis indicates that increased westerly winds with surface marine lows and continental highs prevailed over southern Africa. Anomalous divergence and subsidence occurred over the eastern subcontinent. This was coupled with reduced tropical moist inflows. Anticyclonic vorticity and subsidence via upper level convergence suppressed convection over KwaZulu/Natal. Mid-iatitude winds played a significant role in producing the drought over KwaZulu/Natal through the northward (southwards) movement of the subpolar (subtropical) jet streams which limited the supply of moisture into this region. The area of reduced water vapour flux extended from 15-33°Sandl5-35°E. The 1992/93 DJF analysis of OLR reflects a SE-NW oriented wave-train pattern over southern Africa with KwaZulu/Natal and Malawi anti-phase with the wet Zambezi. Negative anomalies of the streamfunction are obtained between 35°S and 15°S associated with anticyclonic circulation at the 50°E longitude. These are areas where negative SSTs are observed to the east. It is thus apparent that a Hadley cell is a driving mechanism behind the 1992/93 drought over parts of southern Africa south of 20°S. The atmospheric wave train pattern during SON is aligned in the same axis as in the DJF season but the anomaly values are higher in the latter season. This is an indication that even during the pre-summer season convection is suppressed over KwaZulu/Natal and parts of southern Africa south of 20°S. No propagation of these wave trains is observed. The values of below normal precipitable water within these axes increase in the peak summer season. During the DJF (summer) season, the Indian and Atlantic Oceans were anti-phase at the surface and upper levels, but show in-phase tendencies in the pre-summer velocity potential anomaly field. Surface temperatures over southern Africa led to evaporative losses which contributed to a decline in vegetation cover, dam and streamflow levels. The 1992/93 agricultural season was characterised by crop failure and inadequate food resources in some areas. Sugar cane yields in particular were the worst on record during the 1992/93 drought period compared to those of the past three decades. Midmar dam level inflows plunged from 100 mil m3 at the end of 1990 to 0.5 mil m5 during the 1992/93 summer season. The analysis suggests that the 1992/93 drought was not a strong El Nino-induced climatic event. There are signs observed in the velocity potential and divergence fields showing resemblance to an El Nino type of influence but most parameters analysed do not suggest patterns typical of ENSO. The westerly mid-latitude winds coupled with a prominent Hadley cell overturning at 15°S had a profound influence on the occurrence of drought during the 1992/93 summer season than SSTs. Furthermore, budget calculations indicate that kinematic (rotational) properties of the circulation structure had more contribution to the occurrence of the drought than thermodynamic properties. The north-south Hadley overturning between South Africa and the Zambezi implied an anti-phase circulation regime. This together with mesoscale internal dynamics in the meteorological structure of KwaZulu/Natal, sustained the drought for at least three years. As a result, substantial reduction in crop yield and streamlevel inflows had a deleterious repercussions on the community in KwaZulu/Natal.
Characterisation of exposure and biological effects of contaminant of emerging concerns in Thukela and Mhlathuze River systems
(2022-04) Nsibande, Lungelo Rejoice
Rivers, estuaries, and oceans are exposed to a cocktail of pollutants, including contaminants of emerging concern (CECs). This study aimed to examine the extent of contamination and/or pollution of selected contaminants of emerging concern in the uMhlathuze and uThukela River-estuaries, following the source-to-sea approach. Microplastics, organic pollutants, engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) and metals were analysed in surface water samples, and accumulation of metals and biomarker response (acetylcholinesterase enzyme) were examined in the mud crabs Chiromantes eulimene. Thirty-eight organic compounds were detected in surface water samples from the uMhlathuze River-Estuary, which belonged to 14 classes of pharmaceuticals and lifestyle drugs, and 20 compounds were found in the uThukela River-Estuary, belonging to 13 therapeutic compound classes. The differences in detection frequency of compounds illustrated differences in pollution sources and consumption rates, due to differing land-use activities and disease burdens. Pesticides were also found in surface water samples, with a total of 13 herbicides, insecticides and fungicides in the uMhlathuze and 14 in the uThukela Estuary. Herbicides were the dominant pesticide class in both systems. The presence of pesticides was linked to agricultural activities in both catchments. Microplastic concentrations decreased towards the sea, and wastewater treatment works (WWTWs) did not appear to be a major source. Microplastics were detected in all surface water samples and were composed of fibres and films. Fibres were numerically dominant. Poly(propylene) (PP), polycarbonate (PC), nylons (NY), low density poly(ethylene) (LDPE), high-density poly(ethylene) (HDPE), poly (ethylene terephthalate) (PETE), poly (ethylene vinyl acetate) + poly (cyclohexanone) (EVA + poly(cyclohexanone)), poly (butyl acrylate) (PBA) were the dominant plastic polymers found in the uMhlathuze River-Estuary. In uThukela River-Estuary, PETE, NY, PP, PBA and low-density poly(ethylene) (LDPE) were dominant polymers. Engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) such as titanium dioxide (TiO2), silicon dioxide (SiO2), zinc oxide (ZnO), iron oxide (Fe2O3) and copper oxide (CuO) nanoparticles were also recovered from surface water samples. ENMs were irregular, sheet-like, spherical or hexagonal in morphology. The ENMs were possibly from the use of various domestic xvii nano-enabled products, for example, products manufactured for bathing, laundry washing and personal care products. The concentrations of zinc (Zn), chromium (Cr), aluminium (Al), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu) and lead (Pb) detected in the studied systems exceeded the DWAF threshold values for freshwater and marine environments. High metal concentrations could be attributed to various industrial and agricultural activities dominating within these systems. Metals also accumulated in crabs, and accumulation varied between seasons. Chromium, Ni and Fe accumulation was also gender specific, with accumulation in females generally higher than in males in the uThukela Estuary. The effluent from domestic use, industries and other related activities are probable sources of metal contamination in these regions. Overall, AChE activity in the gills of C. eulimene was reduced in both systems, which was a negative effect deduced to be caused by contaminants. In conclusion, this study confirmed the occurrence of CECs in surface water samples, and contaminants such as metals were observed to bioaccumulate in crabs
Characterization of bioflocculant produced by Proteus mirabilis PJC12 isolated from Tendele coal mine wastewater and its application.
(University of Zululand, 2021) Luthuli, Sinothile N
Flocculation has been widely used as one of the most effective methods for removal of suspended particles in water or wastewater treatment. Synthetic flocculants are conventionally used because of their high flocculating activity, low-cost production and availability. However, synthetic flocculants have been reported to have negative impacts on the environment and have caused some serious health problems including neurotoxicity and cancer-genic to humans. Consequently, bioflocculants appear to be an alternative to synthetic flocculants because bioflocculant are eco-friendly, biodegradable, non-toxic and able to function at a low dosage. In the current study, the potential for bioflocculant production of bacterial isolates recovered from Tendele coal mine wastewater (Kwa-Somkhele) in the KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) Province of the Republic of South Africa (RSA) was evaluated. The isolates were screened for bioflocculant production using kaolin clay suspension (0.4% w/v). The isolate with the best flocculating activity was selected for the study. In the nutrient ager plate, the colony appeared as round and cream white in colour. The isolate was identified by 16S ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) as Proteus genus. The analysis of 16S rRNA nucleotide sequence of the bacterium showed 99% similarity to Proteus mirabilis PJC12 with accession number MK 802115.1. The optimisation of nutrients and culture conditions were examined and revealed that optimum inoculum size was 1% (w/v) for maximum bioflocculant production by P. mirabilis PJC12. Fructose as carbon source and organic nitrogen source (yeast extract) was the most favoured for the bioflocculant production. The optimal initial pH of production medium was 6. Optimum temperature was 30oC and the shaking speed of 140 rpm was optimum. At x 72 hrs of incubation period under optimal culture conditions, 2,7 g of pure bioflocculant was recovered from 1 L of bioflocculant production medium of P. mirabilis PJC12. Chemical characterisation of pure bioflocculant was done. Elemental analysis of pure bioflocculant by scanning electron scanning (SEM) showed the morphological images and the presence of the elements C, O, N, Na, Mg, Al, P, S, Cl, K and Ca in the percentage of 17.61%, 45.27%, 0.44%, 4.62%, 0,47%, 14,99%, 0,77%, 1.10%, 1.46% and 13.24% respectively. Functional groups were examined using Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectrometry and revealed the presence of hydroxyl group, carbonyl group, carboxyl and amide functional group. Optimization of parameters of pure bioflocculant for application plays a critical role on the maximum performance of the pure bioflocculant and these parameters including dosage size, cations, pH and thermo stability were examined. Upon optimization, the optimum dosage size of the pure bioflocculant was 0.6 g/mL with flocculating activity of 89%. The bioflocculant performed best in the presence of BaCl2 (cation) with flocculating activity of 94%. The bioflocculant was stable at a wide pH range 3 -12 with the highest flocculating activity of 96% at pH 7. The bioflocculant produced by P. mirabilis PJC12 revealed to be thermostable capable of retaining more than of 70% flocculating activity at 100oC after 30 min of exposure. The bioflocculant showed some good removal efficiency when applied in wastewater for treatment with removal efficiencies of 94% (COD), 97% (BOD), 78%(Ca), 60%(P), and 90%(P) in Vulindlela wastewater.
Climate variability and predictability in tropical Southern Africa with a focus on dry spells over Malawi
(1999) Mwafulirwa, Nicholas Dennis.; Jury, M.R.
The climate variability and predictability in tropical southern Africa at inter-annual time scale is studied. Dry spells are identified using Malawi daily rainfall and circulation patterns are investigated at intraseasonal time scale. The study first examines the temporal and spatial variations of Malawi summer rainfall and relationships with global/regional environmental variables are established. Malawi summerrainfall shows that extreme weather has become more frequent in the last three decades. Three oscillations are identified in Malawi summer rainfall; these are the 2.4 and 3.8 year cycles followed by the 11.1 year cycle. These cycles may be associated with the Quasi-Biennial Oscillation (QBO), El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and solar cycle respectively. The summer rainfall indicates strong correlation with Nino3 sea surface temperature and Indian Ocean outgoing longwave radiation (OLR), three to six months prior to the rainy season. Malawi pentad summer rainfall at intraseasonal time scale shows similarity in distribution with other regional pentad summer rainfall, (e.g., onset and cessation dates). Results from spectral analysis of daily rainfall indicate two major cycles, namely the 10-25 and the 30- 60 day cycles. Results from composite analysis, using the NCEP reanalysis data set, reveal distinct circulation patterns prior to occurrence of dry summers over Malawi. The circulation patterns prior to dry summer are dominated by westerly flow which changes latitude, causing subsidence. Below (above) normal sea surface temperatures are observed across the east Atlantic(central Indian Ocean), a pattern typical of El Nino conditions. Pronounced below normal geopotential heights occur during dry summers to the south of Africa and east of Madagascar with corresponding south westerly wind anomalies. Results from case studies of dry spells at intraseasonal time scale indicate the prominence of deep low pressure cell east of Madagascar and the absence of a well defined Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) over southern Africa. Dry spells are dominated by high pressure cell over Botswana in conjunction with divergent southerlies and subsidence over southern Africa. Results from composites reveal possible predictors for Malawi summer rainfall: zonal winds, geopotential heights east of Madagascar, SST in the central Indian Ocean and in the south east Atlantic Ocean, and low-level velocity potential over northern Madagascar. Results from multivariate regression analysis show that lowest predictability is found in early Malawi summer rainfall (NDJ) while highest predictability is found with FMA rainfall. The highest predictability for November-April (NA) Malawi summer rainfall is associated with sea surface temperature in the southeast Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean, sea level pressure over Indian Ocean and QBO in JAS months. This study has contributed to the understanding of summer rainfall in tropical southern Africa. The knowledge gained can be used by decision makers, farming community, water resource managers for planning and operational purposes. Further statistical forecast models could be developed from precursors (predictors) identified in the study to assist in mitigating the negative effects of climate variability.
The controversy of land reform : a case of Mpangisa in Mid- Illovo
(1999) Bengu, Cabangile Ethel Elizabeth; Makhanya, E. M.
The present land distribution in South Africa emanated-from a history of land dispossession and racially rooted land legislation. The present state of agriculture is to a large extent influenced by present and past land policies of the Region. Colonial dispossession of land in Mpangisa began in the 19th century and was still going on undisturbed until recently. The ignorance and poverty of the residents subjected them to this situation. Their mistake was the friendliness and hospitality they had for the strangers that arrived in their land. Their generations are now reaping the fruits of this kindness. The historical account of Mpangisa. which was collected from oral information, portrays the salient features of this community. Not only does it show how land dispossession was carried out with the backing of official structures such as the courts and the department of surveying, but it also shows how severe the dispossession have been on the deprived commianity. The historical account gives the subtle facts on how communities were marginalised and impoverished by colonial and Apartheid land and agricultural land policies. As a result of the history of land dispossession and evictions, Mpangisa reserve is completely surrounded by the commercial farmers with big pieces of land. The situation of Mpangisa in Mid-Hlovo makes it an island of misery in the midst of plenty. Its situation was complicated by the racial laws of apartheid which declared separate facilities for the different racial groups. Although Mpangisa is serviced by the Umbumbufu magisterial district, and is administered by the chief of Emfume, the neighbouring fanners and farm tenants were administered and serviced by the Camperdown Magisterial District. This is part of the problem experienced by the residence in dealing with their problems. The population of the area has been growing by natural increase as well as by immigration of labour tenants who have been evicted from neighbouring farms. This growth of population has resulted in overpopulation and overstocking processes which are the major cause soil erosion. Lack of land and other resources are associated with faction fighting. There are no development programmes in Mpangisa. A few socio-economic faculties such as schools, a clinic, and shops cater for the bare needs of the people. Lack of health facilities is related to the high incidence of infant mortality and other poverty related diseases such as tuberculosis. As a small community that is marginal in as far as the terms and conditions of the land reform programme are concerned, the residents of Mpangisa are left to fight their own struggle for the reparation of their land.
The creation and development of black townships with special reference to Lamontville Township
(University of Zululand, 1993) Dlungwane, Alison Selby Methenjwa; Makhanya, E. M.
The primary objectives of the project are to cover the following aspects: 1.1 The facts, policies, processes or phenomena and the like which attributes to the emergence and development of Black townships in South Africa, particularly Lamontville. 1.2 The geographical zoning problem as it is opposed to solution. 1.3 The aspiration and attitudes of Black people with regard to township creation and development. 1.4 The existing relationship between a shanty town and township. 1.5 The housing problem prior to emergence of Black townships. and after the 1.6 To show how the policy and practice of urban segregation, control and apartheid have evolved and affected Blacks in townships.
Drought in Southern Africa: structure, characteristics and impacts
(University of Zululand, 2017) Chikoore, Hector; Jury
Drought is a complex, slow onset phenomenon which is a recurring and inevitable feature of the regional climate of southern Africa. This thesis focuses on the structure and characteristics of meteorological droughts in southern Africa and their impacts on surface soil moisture, agricultural yields and surface hydrology. In exploring drought characteristics in southern Africa (15-28°S, 22-32°E) monthly satellite datasets and reanalysis models are employed for the period from the austral summer of 1979-80 to that of 2011-12. Drought frequency and severity are determined using a Precipitation minus Evapotranspiration anomaly index which is related to the self-calibrating Palmer Drought Severity Index. It is found that sensible heat flux is strongly correlated with potential evapotranspiration and may be a useful drought indicator. Seven droughts are identified using the drought index with most occurring in the early part of the study period (1979-1995), whilst the 1992 drought was the most severe. It is shown that rain trends in the study region are neutral but sensible heat flux exhibits upward trend suggesting reduced available water for evaporation from the land surface. Changes in evaporation due to warmer temperatures may become more important than changes in precipitation in the surface water balance over southern Africa. While rainfall, outgoing long wave radiation and soil moisture composite anomalies is greatest over Zimbabwe, potential evapotranspiration, air temperature and vegetation anomalies maximize over the western Limpopo valley. The droughts identified in this study are among the 10 hottest seasons during the study period and area associated with increased probability of heat waves. The immediate cause of meteorological drought over southern Africa is the establishment and persistence of the mid-tropospheric Botswana High which intensifies displacing the tropical rain belts equator ward whilst cloud bands shift to the warm ocean east of Madagascar. The jet stream is strengthened and displaced equator ward as the Angola Low weakens at the surface. The low-level moisture flux from the Indian Ocean is reduced and westerly wind anomalies become dominant. The vertical structure of zonal and meridional winds and vertical motion from the surface to 100 hPa exhibits enhanced subsidence in the area bounded by 18-38°E and between 10-30°S during drought seasons. This is a key finding as it shows that drought tends to be widespread over southern Africa covering an area extending from South Africa’s KwaZulu-Natal to northern Malawi. The El Niño Southern Oscillation signal is the dominant mode of variability particularly over the eastern sector of southern Africa. Five of seven droughts identified occurred during an El Niño event while some were enhanced by a positive phase of the Indian Ocean Dipole. There is a strong link between upper divergence and the Indian Ocean Dipole, where upper convergence over central South Africa and Botswana results in sinking motion. Fluctuations in sea-level pressure over the adjacent tropical Atlantic Ocean due to Benguela Niños act to modulate the Angola Low and moisture convergence over southern Africa such that sometimes the west coastal margins experience a wet anomaly as the rest of the region endures drought. This thesis also investigates relationships between drought and environmental and socio-economic indicators such as soil moisture, stream flow, lake levels, vegetation indices, maize yields and agricultural productivity. Strong negative soil moisture anomalies occur over the region during drought with a maximum over Zimbabwe affecting maize yields there. The El Niño impact on maize, Lake Kariba reservoir levels and vegetation is comparable to the impact on rainfall. Successive drought periods have had greater impact on livelihoods and economies of southern Africa which are heavily dependent on rain-fed agriculture.
An evaluation of lake and river levels as indicators of climate variability in tropical Southern Africa
(1999) Gwazintini, Maxwell Esau; Jury, M.
Southern Africa has only a few.large lakes, one of which is Lake Malawi. It forms part of the lower Zambezi River catchment and is part of the Great Rift Valley. Lake Malawi plays a significant role in socio- economic development particularly in food production, health, energy, transport, recreation, and environment. Changes in its level are related to variations in rainfall and the surrounding atmospheric circulation. Runoff is greatest in late summer following an active-spell of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). This study looks at differences between years when the inflow to Lake Malawi is above and below normal using CEP reanalysis composites. An understanding offactors governing variations ofwater resources will be useful to hydrologists and resource managers who deal with seasonal and inter-annual fluctuations. To this end monthly lake level and rainfall data were analysed for variability in the period 1915 to 1995. From the lake level time series, differences in the minimum and maximum level from beginning to and of summer were calculated, then years with high inflow and low inflow were identified in the period overlapping with the NCEP reanalysis data 1958 - 1998. The Zambezi annual flows have been included to study regional coherence ofclimatic variability. Composites were generated during and prior to the season for sea surface temperature, outgoing long-wave radiation, wind, pressure, and circulation derivatives in the area 50S to 10N and 30W to 100E. The mean annual cycle oflake levels contains a peak in April-May and low point in November-December. The inflow index ( Maximum - Minimum) is well correlated with adjacent station rainfall (r =0.51 to 0.66). Spectral analysis on the inflow index indicates a cycle of 9.58 yrs in the period 1938-1976; and a lower frequency oscillation of 19.16 yrs in recent decades 1976-1995. Secondary oscillations occur at periods of 14.5 yrs, 8.3 yrs, 5.8 yrs (ENSO) and 2.05 yrs (QBO). The 9.58 yrs cycle is consistent with that of Abu-Zeid et al (1992) for the Nile River. Composite years include: Wet 1962,1963,1974,1978,1979,1989; and Dry 1959,1967,1972, 1977,1992,1994. Surface press.ure and wind show significant anomaly patterns for wet minus mean composites. The sea surface temperature patterns alternate over the Atlantic and Indian Oceans particularly in the 30S - 40S belt south east of Africa. Patterns in the precursor seasons: Sept - Nov and lun - Aug enable development of predictive models for Lake Malawi inflow at 3 to 6 months lead time.

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