Human Movement and Biokinetic Sports Science

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The application of prophylactic knee bracing in relation to selected proprioceptive and fitness and skill parameters in first league South African rugby players
(2001) Kruger, Theodore Hendrik; Coetsee, M.F.; Davies, S.E.H.
In rugby and other sports involving rapid change in direction and physical contact, there has been a high incidence of knee injuries in match situations as well as in training sessions. Ample literature is available on the effect of braces for the prevention and recurrence of injuries. However, due to different research fields/subjects (American football, soccer and baseball) and methodologies, results are not always applicable to rugby union. The primary focus of the present study was to evaluate selected parameters important in modem rugby, and the effect of prophylactic knee bracing on speed, agility, strength, proprioception and economy of running. These parameters all play an important role in performance on the rugby field. The questions addressed are: are any of these parameters affected by wearing a prophylactic knee brace, and could forwards and backs be affected differently. Thirty subjects aged 21 - 30 with the mean age of 24,33 ± 4,98 years volunteered to participate in this study. Subjects were evaluated with respect to their anthropometric, proprioceptive, fitness and skill responses. The data were statistically analyzed by a one way ANOVA for significant differences in the following: braced and non-braced conditions for the combined group, backs and forwards separately. An independent t-test was employed to analyse the difference between backs and forwards. Both, p<0.05 and p<0.01 level of probability are indicated, although p<0.05 was the criteria for refuting the null hypothesis. Anthropometric results illustrated that forwards and backs were significantly (p<0.01) different in their stature, mass, bodyfat, upper thigh girths and significantly (p<0.05) different in their above knee and calf girth and the mid thigh calf ratios (MTCR). Fitness and skill responses indicated that speed was insignificantly (p>0.05) influenced with prophylactic bracing for combined subjects, forwards and backs. However, speed was slower with bracing, but the difference was insignificant (p>0.05). Forwards' speed results were slower than results of the backs but-the speed difference between forwards and backs illustrated an insignificant (p>0.05) difference for both variables (braced and non-braced conditions). Agility performance was insignificantly (p>0.05) decreased with brace application for the combined group, forwards and the backs. Forwards' agility performance was significantly (p<0.05) worse than backline players' performance in both variables, braced and non-braced conditions. Proprioception responses indicate that proprioceptive ability improved significantly (p<0.01) with prophylactic bracing for combined subjects and backs, however the forwards' performance also increased with bracing, but the increase was only significant at (p<0.05). Forwards' proprioceptive results in both conditions were worse than results of the backs, and the difference illustrated to be significant (p<0.01) for both variables. For strength, prophylactic bracing illustrated no significant influence on flexion and extension of the knee (p>0.05) for the combined group, backs or forwards. However, a significant (p<0.01) difference was found between backs and forwards in peak strength (Nm) but not in relative strength (Nm ■ kg"1). Economy of running performance for the combined subjects was not significantly (p>0.05) influenced for levels 1-8, but was significantly (p<0.05) influenced in level 9. Backline players illustrated an significant difference from levels 5-9 and the forwards only a significant difference (p<0.05) at level 9 with brace application. In conclusion the major two questions of the present study is to investigate if rugby players should use prophylactic knee bracing to prevent or reduce injuries to the knee, and will the brace affect forwards differently from backline players. From the results one could conclude in saying that bracing would not hamper performance on the rugby field significantly. But one should remember that each rugby player has a unique morphological composition and therefore one would suggest that rugby players evaluate or compare the involving factors, and experiment with prophylactic braces. The individual should, after reading the arguments, be in a better position to make an informed decision whether to use prophylactic braces or not.
The effects of differentiated physical activity programmes on the motor proficiency of children with learning disabilities
(2002) Scheepers, Glynis Kay; Coetsee, M.F.
With this study, the researcher investigated the effect of specially designed physical education programmes on the motor proficiency of learners with learning disabilities. The subjects (N=60) were aJ! learners from the Zululand Remedial School in Empangent, Kwa Zulu/Natal. Two experimental groups participated in a twelve week Perceptual Motor (N=20) or a Sensory Motor (N=20) intervention programme, while a Control group (N=20) was tested on all test variables, but did not participate in a intervention programme. Using a repeated measures with matched pairs design, the Bruininks Oseretsky Test of Motor proficiency (long format) was used during the pre, post and post post testing periods. An ANOVA calculation revealed that the Perceptual Motor group achieved a significant improvement in their motor proficiency (p < 0.01). The Sensory group improved significantly on their motor proficiency score. The Control group showed no significant changes on their scores. * The results displayed enough evidence to prove that a specially designed physical education programme (to suit the special needs of learners with learning disabilities ) is of the utmost importance. Additional data was gathered to establish whether there was any relationship between motor proficiency and body composition profiles, self- concept and classroom behaviour. A very low correlation was found on each of these variables. This raises questions about the nature of the relationship between motor proficiency and these variables and indicates that further substantial studies are required.
Energy expenditure and working efficiency of South African sugarcane cutters
(2005) Muller, Marie de Lanoy; Coetsee, M.F.; Davies, S.E.H
This study sought to examine the physiological demands as well as selected measures for working efficiency in the manual harvesting of burnt and unburnt sugarcane, along with the effects of using a short handle curved blade knife and a long handle curved blade knife on energy expenditure and working efficiency. The effect of subject observation and unobtrusive observation interaction on the cane cutters' performance was also investigated. A total of fifteen professional male cane cutters participated with written informed consent. Only cane cutters with five or more years' working experience were randomly selected to participate in this study. Research in the field of sugarcane cutters in South Africa has been restricted to estimates of energy expenditure only. Evidence shows that heart rate and oxygen uptake during an actual activity differ from measurements in the laboratory at equal workloads. With this in mind, oxygen uptake and energy expenditure were measured directly by means of indirect calorimetry, during the performance of work. The metabolic measures were measured by means of the portable MetaMax 1 Ergospirometry System. Heart rate was measured telemetrically by means of the Polar Accurex Plus™ wrist receiver and its Polar Pacer transmitter. After data collection, heart rate data were downloaded via a Polar Interface Plus with Training Advisor Software onto a computer, and analysed. For the effects of unobtrusive observation interaction on the cane cutters' performance average heart rate during cane harvesting was related to the oxygen consumption, measured by the MetaMax I, using the corresponding heart rate. From this, the energy expenditure was estimated. Burnt and unburnt sugarcane Findings indicated significant differences (p<0.05) between harvesting burnt and unburnt sugarcane with regard to the following physiological parameters: absolute oxygen consumption (p<0.01) and relative oxygen consumption as well as absolute and relative energy expenditure. The mean and peak heart rates during work were not significant (p>0.05), indicative of similar levels of exertion for harvesting burnt and unburnt cane. Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) did not differ significantly (p>0.05), suggesting that the subjective perception of exertion of harvesting burnt and unburnt cane was similar. The selected measures for working efficiency were as follow: Rate of productivity harvesting burnt cane was significantly higher (p<0.01) than that for unburnt cane. Significantly less energy was required to cut one kilogram of burnt cane than that for unburnt cane. The amount of burnt cane cut per litre of oxygen consumed was also significantly higher (p<0.01) than in harvesting unburnt cane. The number of cane cutting strokes per minute to cut the stalks of burnt cane was significantly higher (p<0.05) than that for unburnt cane while the number of stalks cut per stroke for burnt cane was significantly lower (p<0.05) than that for unburnt cane. Despite the last two measures of working efficiency being in favour of unburnt cane, the results in general lend credence to the fact that harvesting burnt cane was more economical with regard to physiological parameters and selected measures of the working efficiency of the cane cutters. Manual sugarcane harvesting implements No significant differences (p>0.05) were demonstrated for the comparison between the short handle curved blade knife and the long handle curved blade knife in burnt cane in any of the measured variables for the physiological parameters, except for the cane cutters' ratings of perceived exertion (RPE). This suggests that the cane cutters' subjective perception of strain experienced harvesting burnt cane with the short handle curved blade knife was more strenuous than using the long handle curved blade knife. Though the selected measures for working efficiency for the comparison of the short handle curved blade knife with the long handle curved blade knife did not significantly differ (p>0.05), the following measures were all in favour of using the long handle curved blade knife: Rate of productivity, energy required to cut one kilogram of burnt cane, similar amounts of cane were cut per litre of oxygen consumed, number of cane cutting strokes per minute to cut the stalks, and number of stalks cut per stroke. Subject observation and unobtrusive observation interaction The effect of observation and unobtrusive observation interaction on the cane cutters' physiological system during cane harvesting revealed significant differences (p<0.05) in corrected measures for relative oxygen consumption and relative energy expenditure. Mean heart rate responses were also significantly higher during subject observation interaction. AH remaining physiological parameters were statistically insignificant (p>0.05). The rate of productivity of the cane cutters recorded during observation interaction was significantly higher (p<0.05). Other selected measures for the working efficiency, though not statistically different (p>0.05) were also higher during subject observation compared with the experimental condition of unobtrusive observation interaction. These results show that subject observation interaction leads to increases in the performance of the cane cutter.
An assessment of the motor ability of learners in the foundation phase of primary school education
(2007) Portela, Nicola; Longhurst, G.K.; Bressan, E.S.
The development of gross motor skills is a process of maturity in movement proficiency, which is fulfilled by the age of eight years. The purpose of this study was to examine the contributions of age, gender and physical activity on the levels of motor proficiency in learners. The subjects (N=366) aged seven years six months to eight years were assessed using eight subtests including tasks for running, balance, bilateral and upper-limb coordination from the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test Battery. There was a significant difference in the relationship between girls and boys: Girls fared better in balance and bilateral coordination skills while boys performed better in strength and running skills (p<.05). The results also indicated a positive correlation between increasing age and motor ability in most areas, except for balance which was performed better by younger age groups. The influence of the physical education curricula showed better scores for learners who participated in physical activity on a daily basis in comparison to learners who only participated in one lesson per week. Learners living in a rural environment outperformed their counterparts in three areas of motor proficiency. This can possibly be attributed to the leisure activities experienced by low socio-economic school learners during pre-primary years, and may offer evidence to the negative effects of modern society on the movement development of youth. This raises questions regarding the proficiency in motor performance, of the children of KwaZulu/Natai and the influence of our modern society and its advancing change in leisure time activities, as well as the structure of physical education classes at school.
The role of a biokinetics rehabilitation programme in alleviating anterior knee pain in adolescents
(2007) Phillips, Jacqueline; Coetsee, M.F.
Anterior knee pain is a common condition prevalent within the adolescent population and frequently interferes with sporting and routine activities. The condition is often self-limiting, but can take up to two years to resolve- Surgical intervention is not recommended in this population group, and often there is no demonstrable anatomical abnormality. Conservative treatment should always be the first approach. A questionnaire designed to determine the incidence of anterior knee pain among adolescents was distributed to various local schools, and was completed under the guidance of either a researcher or the parents. Results from the questionnaires indicate that 27.4% of adolescents who participated in the study had experienced non-traumatic anterior knee pain at some time between the ages of 10 and 17 years. Of this group, 42.9% was male and 57.1% was female. Subjects in the intervention section of the study followed a Biokinetics rehabilitation programme which aimed at stabilising the knee joint by stretching and strengthening the involved musculature and improving proprioception and dynamic stability of the lower limb. The programme resulted in significantly reduced subjective ratings of pain and disability in the experimental group (N=18) compared to the control group (N=12). This improvement in condition can be attributed to the increase in strength, flexibility, proprioception and dynamic balance components tested. The decrease in pain as indicated on a Visual Analogue Scale was in the range of 35.3 to 43.0% at the post- and post-post testing in comparison with the initial pain ratings (p<0.01). There was also significant improvement in the ability to perform activities indicated by individual subjects on the Patient-Specific Functional Scale (p<0.01). All subjects in the experimental group indicated improvement in their condition at the post-test. Most of the group reported that their condition was at least as good or better at the post-post test compared with the post-test. There was an increase of between 9.0 and 17.5% in muscle strength in both the quadriceps and hamstring muscle groups at the post- and post-post testing of the experimental group (p<0.01). There was a small but significant improvement of between 2.2 and 4.4% in quadriceps, hamstring and gastrocnemius flexibility of the experimental group at the post- and post-post testing (rxO.Ol). There was also a large significant improvement in both proprioception and dynamic balance of the experimental group at the post- and post-post testing (p<0.01), which is indicative of improved stability of the knee joint complex. Proprioception as measured on a wobbleboard improved by between 49.5 and 50.8%, and dynamic stability scores improved by 37.5 to 53.2% at the post and post-post testing (p<0.01). These variables improved as a consequence of the Biokinetics rehabilitation programme and were maintained or improved further at the one month follow up. In the context of South African health care, a structured Biokinetics rehabilitation programme based on sound clinical and scientific principles has the potential to endear positive outcomes in the treatment of anterior knee pain.
The effects of a supplementary high intensity muscle endurance resistance training programme on Comrades Marathon performance
(2007) Ellapen, Terry Jeremy.; Coetsee, M.F.
In this study, the aim was to determine the effects of a high intensity muscle endurance resistance intervention programme as a supplement to normal running training for Comrades Marathoners. A sample voluntary population of 115 subjects were initially distributed at random into two groups of approximately equal size, namely the control (CT) group and the experimental (RST) group. Originally, the CT group constituted 57 subjects, whilst the RST group constituted 58 subjects. However, four subjects from the CT and one subject from the RST group failed to complete the pre-intervention test battery, thereby eliminating themselves from the study. The sample size was therefore reduced to 110 subjects, resulting in 53 subjects in the CT group and 57 in the RST group. Subjects were males between the ages of 25 to 50 years who had successfully completed a minimum of five Comrades Marathons (at least three up runs and two down runs). All subjects completed a PAR-Q as well as an informed consent form prior to participating in the pre-intervention test battery. The pre-and post-intervention test batteries comprised of physical characteristics measurements (age, body mass, height, body fat percentage and percentage of fat-free mass) and physical performance measurements (10km run, 400m-sprint, Wingate anaerobic cycle test, one-minute sit-up test, one-minute press-up test and lower back-leg dynamic strength test). The pre-intervention test battery results indicated comparable, non-significant (p> 0.05) differences between the control and experimental groups' physical characteristics and physical performance parameters. The statistical analyses of the control and experimental groups' previous Comrades Marathon completion times proved to be non-significantly (p> 0.05) different and therefore comparable. Subsequent to the pre-intervention test battery, the experimental group was subjected to the intervention programme for 34 weeks. The experimental group completed the intervention programme twice a week in addition to their normal marathon running training, whilst the control group continued with their normal Comrades Marathon running training. Thereafter both .the groups underwent the post-intervention test battery. The control group's post-intervention physical characteristics and physical performance parameters remained relatively similar, with non-significant (p> 0.05) differences. The control group's average 10km run time was non-significantly (p> 0.05) reduced by 2.1%. The experimental group experienced significant (p< 0.05) changes to both their physical characteristics and physical performance parameters. These changes included: a post-intervention decrease of percentage of body fat by 22.6%; an increase of percentage of fat-free mass by 4.8%; a reduction of 10km run time by 12.1%; a reduction of 400m-sprint time by 28.5%; an increase in Wingate anaerobic cycle test results by 16.3%; an improvement in one-minute sit-up test results by 27.8%; an improvement in one-minute press-up test results by 32.4%; an increase of lower body dynamic strength by 28.9%; and, most importantly, a reduction in their Comrades Marathon completion times by 9.2%. In addition to this, the intervention programme helped the experimental group to reduce their 21.1km and 42.2km completion times. The intervention programme increased the structural/musculoskeleta! joint integrity and stability of the members of the experimental group. It is proposed that the increased structural/musculoskeletal joint integrity and stability reduced the total incidence of overuse injury experienced by the experimental group by 43.3% as compared to the control group. In conclusion, the study demonstrated that the high intensity muscle endurance resistance programme that was used to supplement the primary running training of Comrades Marathon runners (experimental group) did help improve their Comrades Marathon completion times.
The effects of a kinder kinetic intervention programme on the motor proficiency levels and scholastic performance of children aged 6- 8 years
(2009) Gouws, Chantell; Longhurst, G.K.; van der Berg
The effect of movement on academic performance is often underrated. Movement is essential to learning and can be regarded as the door to learning. Researchers argue about the importance of movement because there seems to be a positive interchange between the brain and the body. This study reports on the influence of a kinderkinetic intervention programme on the scholastic performance of 6-8 year old children. Children were selected from schools in the Northern Zululand area of KwaZulu/Natal. Two groups of children were used in this study (a control and experimental group) went through a pre-test and post-test using three test batteries. The experimental group was subjected to an eight-week kinderkinetic movement programme. The results indicate that the children in the experimental group showed an improvement in scholastic performance compared to the children in the control group. There was a significant correlation (r= 36, p£ 0.05) between motor proficiency scores and the scholastic performance of subjects in the experimental group. There was a meaningful relationship (r=-o.55, p<0.05) between the motor proficiency scores and the scores obtained on the Connor Classroom Behaviour Questionnaire. There was a significant relationship (r=-0.35, p< 0.05) for the control group and a negative correlation of ( r=-0.35, p<0.10) for the experimental group. Three of the four hypothesis were accepted.
The influence a 10-week Zulu stick fighting intervention programme has on motor proficiency and health-related physical fitness of prepubescent Zulu males
(University of Zululand, 2010) Nxumalo, Sabelo Abednego; Coetsee, M.F.; Semple, S.J.; Longhurst, G.K.
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of a 10-week stick fighting intervention programme on anthropometrical measures, motor proficiency and healthrelated physical fitness parameters such as body composition, cardiovascular fitness, flexibility, muscular endurance and muscular strength. Twenty two prepubescent Zulu males (mean age = 9.80 ± 0.64 years, range 8.60-11.10) formed the experimental group and twenty three other Zulu males (mean age = 10.09 ± 0.73, range 8.43-11.70) formed the control group. The experimental group underwent a 10 week stick fighting intervention programme facilitated by two professional stick fighters whilst for the same period, the control group did not receive any intervention programme rather continued with their daily activities. For motor proficiency, data was collected at three intervals: pre, post and post-post intervention. The Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOTMP) was used to assess motor proficiency: fine and gross motor skills. For anthropometrical measures and health-related physical fitness, data was collected at two intervals: pre- and postintervention. The five health-related components of physical fitness were measured by the following: body composition, flexibility, muscular endurance, muscular strength and cardiovascular fitness. The experimental group showed significant improvements (p < 0.05) in the postintervention motor proficiency composite mean scores for balance and upper limb dexterity subtests whereas the control group did not exhibit significant improvements in any of their post-intervention composite mean scores. The experimental group also experienced an 11.62% significant improvement (p < 0.05) in their motor proficiency mean scores relative to the control group when the pre-intervention and the post-post intervention scores were compared. The low internal consistency and inter-item correlation of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency suggests that there are challenges with the reliability of the results. Thus, the results should be interpreted with viii caution. The experimental group also recorded significant improvements (p < 0.05) in the body composition, cardiovascular fitness and flexibility after a 10-week Zulu stick fighting intervention programme when post-intervention mean scores are compared adjusted for pre-intervention mean scores whereas no significant improvement in the post-intervention mean scores was recorded for the control group. It appears that the levels of motor proficiency and health-related physical fitness can be positively influenced through participating in traditional Zulu games such as Zulu stick fighting. It would seem the benefits derived from engaging in Zulu stick fighting may be the same as the one derived from doing any king of physical activity. It must be said though that the results of the motor proficiency in the current study can not be declared as useful data.
The influence of exergaming on the physical fitness; attitude towards physical activity; and self-concept in overweight and obese children
(2010) van Biljon, Anneke; Longhurst, G.K.
The rapidly growing rate of childhood obesity makes it imperative to develop an effective intervention program for obese children. This stud y was an attempt to answer the question as to whether exergaming can drive overweight and obese children towards adopting a healthier lifestyle, becoming more physically active for life and improving their self-concept. The study consisted of a 6-week intervention on the Nintendo Wii. Participants were aged between 9-12 years old. Subjects were assigned to thee groups according to location: experimental group (n=11), control group A (n=10) and control group B (n=10). The experimental group participated in the exergaming intervention program, control group A had access to traditional video games and control group B continued with their everyday life activities with no intervention. Healthrelated- and functional- fitness protocols were used to assess the physical fitness of the subjects. The Cratty Self-concept questionnaire determined self-concept amongst subjects and a closedended interview was conducted to conclude changes in attitude towards physical activity. Statistical calculations revealed that the experimental group showed significant improvement in their level of functional fitness (p<0.05). Coordination, reaction time, speed and agility increased by magnitudes of 28%, 94% and 37% respectively. Reductions in resting- blood pressure and heart rate mean scores were observed. Both the control groups displayed marginal increases in their overall level of fitness that were not significant. No changes were observed and recorded for self- concept and attitude towards physical activity across the board. These results support the concept that exergaming can be used as an alternative means to improve the level of functional fitness as well as promoting physical activity in children.
The effect of a 12–week home–based exercise intervention programme on cardio-metabolic disease risk factors
(University of Zululand, 2012) Breukelman, Gerrit Jan; Semple, S.; Grace, J.
This study evaluated the use, safety, and short-term benefits of a home-based physical activity programme, on cardio-metabolic disease risk factors. Sedentary individuals (n=67) were recruited for the study and those that qualified obtained medical clearance to participate. Participants received an individual log book to record their full day activities and meals, and were instructed to complete the home–based programme three days/week for 12 weeks. The home-based programme consisted of three exercise routines (aerobic, resistance and stretching). Outcomes included changes from baseline to 12 weeks in: weight, body mass index (BMI), waist to hip ratio, fat percentage, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, resting heart rate, fasting total cholesterol, and fasting blood glucose. Forty-six participants completed the study. A significant improvement between baseline and 12 weeks post intervention for diastolic blood pressure (77 mmHg – 68 mmHg; 11.7%, p < 0.05) was identified. From baseline to 12 weeks a decrease of 9% was noted in the number of participants in the moderate risk category while the number of participants in the low risk category increased by 19%. No other statistically significant differences were detected between the baseline and 12 weeks. Despite the observation that minimal statistically significant changes occurred as a result of the 12–week intervention, scores evidently show that the physical activity programme was beneficial in eliciting some positive changes (%) that may reduce cardiovascular risk. More prominent effects may have been observed with the inclusion of a calorie restriction programme.
The effect of a 10-week Tae-bo intervention program on cardiometabolic disease risk factors in overweight and obese females at the University of Zululand
(University of Zululand, 2013) Mathunjwa, Musa Lewis; Semple, S.; du Preez, C.
The prevalence of obesity, sedentary life styles and associated cardiometabolic disease (CMD) risk are increasing among black African women and require urgent attention in the form of preventative strategies. To date, there is limited scientific evidence highlighting the efficacy of Tae-bo as an intervention for reducing CMD risk. Regular physical activity leads to significant changes in terms of the reduction of CMD risk. The present study was designed to investigate the effect of a 10-week Tae-bo intervention program on cardiometabolic disease risk factors in overweight and obese females. Sixty previously sedentary participants who were overweight (BMI > 25–29.9 kg.m-2) or obese (BMI ≥ 30–39.9 kg.m-2) were recruited for the study. Participants performed a 10-week aerobic (Tae-bo) program 60 min/day for three days a week at moderate intensity (40–60% HRR) for the first five weeks and high intensity (60–70% HRR) for the last five weeks. The intensities were established by the use of Karvonen‟s formula. Anthropometric parameters, blood pressure, fasting glucose and lipoproteins (both using finger prick) were measured at baseline, after six weeks and 24 hours after completion of the 10-week program. Data was analysed using repeated measures analysis of variance and a Tukey Post hoc test. The prevalence of metabolic syndrome was 26.7% pre-intervention and decreased to 16.3% post intervention. There was a statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05) improvement in all the parameters measured, mid and post intervention. Some effect sizes, following the intervention, include: weight (0.3), BMI (0.2), TC/HDL (-0.2). A 10-week Tae-bo training program was effective in reducing cardiometabolic disease risk factors in overweight/obese female university students.
An evaluation of Biokinetics internships
(University of Zululand, 2014) Nel, Christopher Robert; Grace, J.
Few evaluations of internships have been carried out in the health professions in South Africa. Those that have been undertaken are in the field of medicine, physiotherapy and clinical psychology. This research seeks to fill that gap. The study used a mixed methods approach utilising both qualitative and quantitative research methods which is consistent with convergence model of triangulation design. This process evaluation allowed an evaluation of Biokinetic Honours and internships, and how they functioned at a specific moment in time. Descriptive statistics and a chi-square test were used to analyse the quantitative results and Thematic Content Analysis (TCA) was used to analyse qualitative data. Results, both quantitative and qualitative indicated that the male and female Biokineticists (N = 47, SD =3.12) who participated in the study were satisfied with their Biokinetic Honours and internships years. The results also indicated that supervising Biokineticists (N = 20, SD = 6.9) were satisfied with their interns. Qualitative results generally underpin results from the quantitative data and, while the majority of the results are positive, there were some problem areas. These related to poor supervision, long working hours, poor pay and perceived exploitation of interns, interns not completing the guideline number of evaluations in each category and poor teaching practices at Honours level. The following recommendations were 1) Review Biokinetic Honours programmes; 2) The structure of Biokinetics programmes be reviewed; 3) Community Service is introduced; 4) The possibility of introducing specialization in the field; 5) Internships should be in the public and private sector; 6) Supervising Biokineticists should undergo supervision training; 7) Cultural transformation needs addressing in the field; 8) Working conditions must be reviewed; 9) Selection processes for Honours should be reviewed and 10) More aggressive marketing of the discipline.
The acute effects of different exercise intensities on Microalbuminuria and insulin sensitivity in obese, sedentary females
(University of Zululand, 2015) Frames, Kelly Simonne; Semple, Stuart
The prevalence of obesity has increased worldwide and represents a major public health concern. Obesity is often associated with an increase in urinary albumin excretion and impaired insulin sensitivity. Whilst it is clear that exercise is beneficial in terms of improving insulin sensitivity, the optimal exercise prescription in different cohorts is still unknown, hence the recent increase in studies investigating high versus moderate intensity interventions. It is also unclear what effect acute bouts of exercise may have on microalbuminuria, a marker which is more commonly being utilized for screening and prognosis of diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular diseases. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of an acute bout of moderate versus high intensity exercise on insulin sensitivity and microalbuminuria in obese and normal weight sedentary females
The work health-related behaviours and economic costs of overweight and obese corporate and industrial employees: a South African study
(University of Zululand, 2017) Currie, Shereen
The work health-related behaviours and economic costs of overweight and obese corporate and industrial employees: a South African study. The trend of increasing prevalence of obesity is not only a public health concern, but employers have noticed rising rates of obesity among their employees in the workplace. Excess body weight has been associated with the development of comorbidities, which may in turn negatively affect quality of life, thus decreasing productivity in the workplace and creating an economic burden. The purpose of this study was to assess the work health-related profile of overweight and obese employees, to establish the cost implication of these employees in South African industrial and corporate companies, and to develop a health promotion model to address the condition of being overweight or obese in the workplace. The study collected data from various corporate and industrial companies. Data was obtained through two methods: 1) employees’ medical data from a medical database (part A), and 2) questionnaires completed by employees (part B). For both parts A and B, the age ranged from 18-64 years (40.8 ± 11.0) and no differentiation was made between race groups. Part A consisted of 17 359 employees, whilst 117 employees comprised part B. Employees from both parts A and B were categorized according to BMI – normal weight (18.5‒24.9 kg/m2), overweight (25.0‒29.9 kg/m2), and obese (≥ 30 kg/m2). Employees from part A were further categorized according to obese classes – obese class I (30.0-34.9 kg/m2), obese class II (35.0-39.9 kg/m2), and obese class III (≥ 40 kg/m2). Data collected for part A included BMI, blood glucose, blood cholesterol, and blood pressure; whereas employees from part B completed the following: 1) WHO health at work survey, 2) WHO quality of life questionnaire, 3) international physical activity questionnaire, and 4) dietary record. SPSS Statistics 24 was used to determine frequencies, associations and correlations; a 95% level of confidence (p<0.05) was applied. A non-parametric chi-square test was used to determine significant associations between variables and each BMI category, while the Mann-Whitney test determined significant differences between groups. Prevalence rates of overweight and obese men were 46.4% and 24.4%, respectively, while prevalence rates for overweight and obese women were 26.7% and 18.3%, respectively. Prevalence of comorbidities were observed to increase with increasing BMI, and the measured comorbidities were significantly associated with BMI. Normal weight females performed significantly more moderate intensity exercise compared to overweight and obese females. Significant associations for increased number of snacks, as well as sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB) were observed with overweight and obese males, as well as overweight females. A significant association between self-rated quality of life and self-rated health for each BMI category was observed. Furthermore, a significant association was observed between social relationships and overweight employees, while psychological health and social relationships were significant for obese employees. In all domains of quality of life (QOL), normal weight employees had higher mean scores for the various QOL domains, compared to overweight and obese employees. The prevalence of presenteeism increased with increasing BMI, with presenteeism being significantly associated with both overweight and obese employees. The prevalence of absenteeism increased with increasing BMI, though no significance was observed between groups. Overweight employees cost their respective companies in the range of R30 000 to R50 000 for the period of one year, and obese employees incurred a cost in the range of approximately R340 000 to R450 000. Together, overweight and obese employees incurred a cost of nearly half a million rand annually. These costs are calculated specifically for the study cohort, and would be substantially greater when calculated for the entire working population of South Africa. Results indicated that overweight and obese employees had increased prevalence of comorbidities, poorer quality of life, and increased presenteeism and absenteeism. It is recommended that companies implemement health and wellness programs with a multi-faceted approach to address obesity in the workplace.
Identification and modification of cardiometabolic disease risk factors in South African urban primary school children
(University of Zululand, 2018) van Biljon, Anneke; Semple, S.J.; McKune, A.; Kolanisi, U.
The initial asymptomatic process of atherosclerosis is known to develop in childhood and is associated with increases in cardiometabolic disease (CMD) risk factors. Low physical activity (PA) levels and sedentary lifestyles have been identified as contributory factors to CMD. In addition, PA levels are known to influence the function of the cardiac autonomic nervous system (ANS), and are a possible mechanism for explaining the association between insufficient PA, morbidity and mortality. Consequently, it has been proposed that sufficient PA may enhance cardiac ANS activity in children. However, there is still a lack of consensus on the exact dosage of exercise required for optimal ANS adaptation. This thesis aims to identify and modify the risk for CMD in urban primary school children. A cross-sectional study was performed to establish PA levels in South African primary school children. This was followed by a study that examined associations between individual CMD risk factors and altered ANS activity. The effect of two different exercise doses on CMD risk factors in overweight children was explored in a pilot study that lead to the quasi experimental study where the effectiveness of isocaloric exercise protocols on CMD risk factors and cardiac autonomic modulation in children were explored. Exercise interventions were set at either 65% to 70% of the maximum heart rate (MHR) in the moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT = 29) group or >80% MHR in the high-intensity interval training (HIIT = 29) group, or the interventions were combined in the alternate (ALT = 27) group. Heart rate variability (HRV) was used to measure cardiac ANS activity. Overall, we found significant discrepancies in PA levels among gender, age and ethnic groups, raising important questions about population group equality in terms of access to participate in PA. The second cross-sectional study established strong associations between individual CMD risk factors and cardiac ANS activity. Lastly, the pilot study showed different cardiometabolic effects induced by moderate-intensity and vigorous-intensity. While the quasi experimental study demonstrated that both the magnitude and components of CMD risk factors and ANS relate to exercise intensity. When the effects of these interventions were examined, enhanced vagal activity (RMSSD, pNN50, SD1) seemed to be achieved through high-intensity interval training (HIIT), when compared with moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT). In conclusion, this thesis provides evidence that HIIT induces more superior cardioprotective effects in children than does MICT. The favourable outcomes of HIIT may have important clinical implications in regards to reducing the risk of developing CMD; however, studies that implement longer terms are required to confirm the findings.
Selected genes polymorphism related to biomarkers and physical characteristics in young African cricket rugby soccer netball players and Bulgarian athletes
(University of Zululand, 2019) Mugandani, Sam Chenjerai
Selected genes polymorphism related to biomarkers and physical characteristics in young African cricket rugby soccer netball players and Bulgarian athletes
Physical tests, hormonal and oxidative-stress related biomarkers in intermittent training of Taekwondo Athletes
(University of Zululand, 2019) Mathunjwa, Musa Lewis; Danials, T.D; Ivanov, S; Kappo, A.B
This thesis presents four studies. Study one aimed at identifying the anthropometric, physical and physiological characteristics of junior Taekwondo athletes required to achieve an international status in 25 males and 11 females aged 25.5±2.6 years. Body composition [percentage body fat (%BF), sum of skinfolds (SS)], flexibility (sit & reach, hip flexor (HF) and quadriceps flexibility (QF), lower extremity explosive power [vertical jump (Diff VJ)] and vertical jump relative power (R Power), muscle endurance (sit-ups and push-ups), muscular strength (handgrip right and left), hexagonal agility (HEX) and agility T-test, aerobic power (20 m bleep test (20MST) converted to maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max.). Significantly higher %BF and sum of skinfolds were recorded in junior female players. No differences in body mass, stature and body mass index (BMI) were found. Female athletes showed lower (p<0.001) results in push-ups compared to males. Maximal grip strength of both hands was higher (p<0.05) in males. Study two investigated the effects of 4 weeks high-intensity intermittent Taekwondo (TKD) training program on body composition, physical fitness and performance of thirty-four (n=34) active TKD athletes of South African Zulu ancestry aged 20-26 years. The athletes were divided into control group (CG; n=10 male, n=7 female), performed interval TKD and strength training of lower intensity (70-75 % VO2max), experimental group (EG; n=10 male, n=7 female) that performed a high-intensity intermittent TKD and strength training (85-95 % VO2max). Body composition parameters: body mass, % body fat, sum of skinfolds, blood pressure (BP) and resting heart rate (RHR) flexibility, leg power, muscle strength and endurance, agility, VO2max (20m bleep test) were measured. Data were analysed using t-test for independent samples and Z-score individual radar plots statistics for assessment of each athlete. After 4 weeks of training, athletes in the experimental group showed a significant reduction in body weight (p<0.05), BMI (p<0.001), systolic blood pressure (SBP) (p<0.05), resting heartrate (RHR) (p<0.05), SS (p<0.05), and fat % (p<0.001) and significant improvement (p<0.001) in flexibility, muscle strength, power, agility and VO2max. In male controls, fat % was decreased (p<0.05), flexibility and VO2max were increased (p<0.05). In female controls, only flexibility was improved (p<0.05). Study three assessed the hormonal and biochemical responses of young male and female Taekwondo athletes during the 4 week high-intensity Taekwondo training. Twenty-eight (N=28) [16 males and 12 females] South African Taekwondo (TKD) athletes aged 20-26 years, BMI=23.7±2.9 14 were subjected to 4 weeks TKD and strength training divided in two groups: experimental (n=8 male, n=6 female) performing high intensity intermittent (85-90% VO2max) TKD training and a control group (n=8 males, n=6 females), performing interval TKD training of lower intensity (70-75% VO2max). A structured Taekwondo tasks (sTT) test was conducted before and after the training period within the experimental group after 4 weeks of high intensity intermittent Taekwondo (HIITKD) training period, the post-sTT test total testosterone level was higher (p<0.05) by 21.7% compared to the pre-sTT test value. No differences between groups were found` in free testosterone, testosterone-binding globulin and cortisol. Post-sTT test cortisol/total testosterone (C/tT) ratio decreased by 13.3% in the experimental group and increased by 18.5% in controls (p<0.05) after the training period. Study four assessed the haematological parameters in twenty-eight (N=28) [16 males and 12 females] South African Taekwondo (TKD) athletes aged 20-26years, BMI=23.7±2.9 14 subjected to 4 weeks of TKD training who were divided into two groups: experimental (n=8 male, n=6 female) performing high intensity intermittent (85-90% VO2max) TKD training and a control group (n=8 males, n=6 females) performing interval TKD training of lower intensity (70-75% VO2max). A structured Taekwondo tasks (sTT) test was conducted before and after the training period. Within the experimental group, after 4 weeks of high intensity intermittent Taekwondo (HIITKD) training period, the post-sTT test total testosterone level was higher (p<0.05) by 21.7% compared to the pre-sTT test value. No differences between groups were found in Haematocrit mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular haemaglobin (MCH), mean corpuscuclar haemaglobin concentration (MCHC), red distribution width (RDW), Platelets, Eosinophil and Basophil levels between experimental and control groups in the male and female athletes after the training period. RBC (L), Hb, Haematocrit, MCV, MCH, MCHC, RDW, and Lymphocyte levels increased significantly in experimental groups in both female and male TKD athletes. Discussion Intermittent physical events may produce great strength and muscle power demands on both upper and lower body with high anaerobic energy demand. Conclusion. The findings of this study which were obtained from Taekwondo athletes of Zulu ancestry support the effectiveness of 4 weeks high intensity intermittent training in improving body composition, cardiorespiratory response, blood hormone and physical performance that could contribute to improve health and enhanced combat skills of Taekwondo athletes.
The effects of a low-carbohydrate, high-fat diet on type 2 diabetic patients
(University of Zululand, 2019) Breukelman, Gerrit Jan; Basson, A.K.; Djarova, T.G.; Du Preez, C.J.
Diabetes amongst South Africans is increasing at an alarming rate. With 8.27% – 9% of the population suffering from diabetes, the majority is Type 2. It is predicted that diabetes will have doubled by 2030. The aims of this study were first to determine the effectiveness of a low carbohydrate high fat diet (LCHFD) on Type 2 diabetic patients. Secondly, to see what the effects of a concurrent physical activity programme with an LCHFD will have on Type 2 diabetic patients. Lastly, this study aimed to determine the effects on cholesterol and lipoproteins using an LCHFD on Type 2 diabetic patients. Participants were recruited from patients registered at the Richards Bay Diabetic Clinic and surrounding area in Zululand, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa and were screened and received approval by a medical doctor at the diabetic clinic for participation in the study. Twenty-eight female and eleven male Type 2 diabetics (N = 39) aged 31-71 years were assigned into either a concurrent physical activity and LCHFD group (DiExG) (n = 14) which followed a 16-week program consisting of physical activity program entailing walking a minimum of 10 000 steps daily (measured using a pedometer wristband) combined with an LCHFD requiring participants not to consume more than 50grams (g) of carbohydrates per day for the 16-week experimental period, LCHFD only group (DietG) (n = 11) which were required to follow an LCHFD requiring participants not to consume more than 50g of carbohydrates per day or control group (ConG) (n = 14), whose members continued with their normal daily activities throughout the 16-week period. Of the initial 39 patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus who were eligible to participate in the study, 35 patients (DiExG: n=12, DietG: n=10, ConG: n=13) completed the study and were included in the final analysis. The results revealed no significant (p>0.05) changes in glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c), glucose and insulin in either the DiExG (HbA1c: p=0.592; 8.3% decrease, glucose: p=0.477; 11.1% decrease and insulin: p=0.367; 44.1% increase) or DietG (HbA1c: p=0.822; 0% change, glucose: p=0.108; 11.0% decrease and insulin: p=0.976; 4.2% decrease). No significant (p>0.05) changes were found in the DiExG and DietG regarding body mass (p=0.999; 2.0% decrease and p=0.991; 2.5% decrease; respectively), body mass index (BMI) (p=0.999; 2.2% decrease and p=0.998; 2.3% decrease; respectively), percentage body fat (%BF) (p=0.693; 16.7% decrease and p=0.928; 13.0% decrease, respectively), waist circumferences (p=0.929; 5.4% decrease and p=0.71; 6.3% decrease, respectively), hip circumference (p=0.85; 5.8% decrease and p=0.414; 7.0% decrease; respectively) and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) (p=0.999; 0% difference and p=0.999; 0% difference, respectively). No significant (p>0.05) changes were observed in total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), triglycerides (TG) and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) in either the DiExG (TC: p=0.791; 2.0% increase, LDL-C: p=0.704; 7.4% increase, TG: p=0.477; 9.5% decrease and HDL-C: p=0.989; 0% change) or DietG (TC: p=0.881; 0% change, LDL-C: p=0.744; 13.8% decrease, TG: p=0.677; 17.9% increase and HDL-C: p=0.844; 0% change). In conclusion, neither an LCHFD alone or in combined with a physical activity programme failed to elicit improvements in insulin sensitivity and should not indisputably be included in a treatment regime to manage or improve body composition in Type 2 diabetics. As such, adoption of an LCHFD, either alone or combination with physical activity, should not unequivocally be adopted as part of the treatment approach for Type 2 diabetics and should carefully be weighed against the benefits of more traditional dietary and/or physical activity interventions. This study further concludes that the LCHFD with or without exercise has no beneficial or negative adaptations to cholesterol in Type 2 diabetics.
Treatments, therapies and activities in learners with autism spectrum disorder and the efficacy of selected interventions on social communication
(University of Zululand, 2019) Gouws, Chantell; du Preez, C.J.; Govender, S.
Despite the sensitivity of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), and the fact that there is an increase worldwide as well as in South Africa, parents/guardians and learners face many challenges on a daily basis. The difficulties that many of these parents/guardians and learners’ face are with social communications; social interaction; restricted and repetitive behavior patterns and interest in specific objects or topics. There are various treatments, therapies, interventions and activities available for these learners’. The objective of this study is to describe current treatments, therapies, interventions and activities utilized by learners diagnosed with ASD in the province of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. As well as to investigate the efficacy of interventions on the learners’ social communications. The study also aimed to describe current pharmaceutical and supplement-based treatments used by learner diagnosed with ASD. The study also explored the role of a sensory integration intervention on mood, behavior and cognition of learners diagnosed with ASD. The study examines the effects of motor skill and horse riding activities on the social communication skills of learners diagnosed with ASD. The study collected data from various schools and centers (specializing in ASD), parents/guardians of learners diagnosed with ASD. Data was obtained through three methods: 1) Pharmaceutical and Supplement-based treatment survey, 2) Sensory Integration intervention program, and 3) Motor skill and Horse Riding activity observations. No differentiation was made between race groups during the study. The pharmaceutical and supplement-based survey consisted 24 children aged 2-12 years diagnosed with ASD. The sensory integration therapy, twelve children aged 2-7 years participated in the intervention. In the motor skill activity case study, three boys aged 6-8 years were observed in the horse riding lesson, four boys age 9-13 participated. The results of the study identified the various treatments therapies, interventions and activities that can assist that learners diagnosed with ASD to participate in daily activities. These finding will also assist parents and tutors working with learners on a daily basis. Considering the increase in prevalence of ASD, it is very important that more education is provided on which treatment, therapy, intervention and activity suitable is for their child. Awareness raising in the media to reduce the stigma, improve understanding of ASD, encouragement for early diagnoses and encouragement take up of various interventions to address symptoms associated with ASD is also important.
Visio-spatial intelligence (vsi) between premier league, first division rugby players and non-athletes in the development of a sportspecific visio-spatial intelligence test battery
(University of Zululand, 2020) Millard, Lourens
Competitive rugby is a popular sport in South Africa, that not only serves as a major commercial platform viewed by millions of spectators weekly, but also hosts a large number of players that participate in the sport. Athletes in any sport can spend hours training in order to improve their strength, speed and the endurance of their muscles. However, if their visual processing capabilities are inadequate, their physical training may not be optimised and thus their performance will suffer. Despite this, sport vision has only received attention in relation to research in recent years. The reliance and importance of the visual system necessitates the need to determine the factors that affect an athlete’s ability to obtain and respond to appropriate visual stimuli. To date, research has focused on individual factors that affect vision and visiospatial intelligence (VSI). However, a combination of factors could warrant a more holistic approach. This study summarised and compiled an overview of the factors affecting vision and VSI in athletes, covering those factors previously connected with sport, as well as those hitherto not yet associated with athletic activities, but that could also play a part in sporting performance. In this study, fourteen factors affecting vision and VSI in athletes were identified, and this compilation provides a starting point for further study. This study reveals that many factors can affect vision and VSI, and could add significantly to the processes relating to visual testing of athletes and assessments of their decision-making skills. This study further indicates that while current research still tends to focus on single factors affecting vision and VSI, a large number of these factors have been identified and empirically researched. This offers new opportunities for researchers to investigate the effects of a combination of factors, and for coaches to explore further possibilities for competitive advantage. Research suggests that athletes have enhanced visio-spatial expertise in comparison to non-athletes. However, conflicting research suggests that this is not always the case as non-athletes possess similar visio-spatial expertise in certain visual skills. In this regard, the present study has compared the visual expertise of first-division rugby players to non-athletes. Participants underwent an optometric assessment after which the following six VSI components were measured, namely; accommodation facility, saccadic eye movement, speed of recognition, peripheral awareness, visual memory and hand-eye coordination using the following tests: hart near far rock, saccadic eye movement, evasion, accumulator, flash memory and ball wall toss tests. Results indicated that first-division rugby players performed significantly (p ≤ 0.05) better in five of the six tests, with the exception of visual memory (p = 0.893). While this study substantiates the notion that athletes, in this case first-division rugby players, perform significantly better in most VSI components, this is not the case for all aspects of vision. Further, this study attempted to discern whether Premier League rugby players have superior VSI in comparison to non-athletes when comparing six visual skills namely; accommodation facility, saccadic eye movement, speed of recognition, peripheral awareness, visual memory and hand-eye coordination. As with first-division rugby players, a statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05) difference existed between Premier League rugby players and non-athletes for five out of the six tests. Conversely, no real evidence is shown that visual memory differs between Premier League rugby players and non- athletes (p = 0.599). While novices in sport possesses similar visual skills to that of experts playing at a higher level, there may be major differences in performance in these VSI skills. In addition, expert athletes may only demonstrate superiority in specific vision skills and not all aspects of vision. Thus, the present study compared the performance of Premier League rugby players (n = 40) and first-division rugby players (n = 40) on six specific components of vision, namely; accommodation facility, saccadic eye movement, speed of recognition, peripheral awareness, visual memory, and hand-eye coordination. Premier League rugby players performed significantly (p ≤ 0.05) better than the first-division rugby players in five of the six tests, but were found to be similar in visual memory performance (p = 0.810). The findings of the present study indicate that first-division and Premier League rugby players have superior VSI when compared to non-athletes. What is particularly noteworthy is that non-athletes are not worse than either first-division or Premier League rugby players with regards to visual memory. Further, while this study substantiates the proposal that expert athletes, and specifically rugby players, have superior visual expertise to novice athletes, it also found that this is not the case with all vision skills. Again, no difference was found in visual memory between novice (first-division) and expert (Premier League) rugby players. These findings suggest that sport-specific vision testing batteries may be required to distinguish high performers from low performers in the same vein as physical tests are utilised in the selection and recruitment of athletes. In this regard, the present study proposes a rugby-specific test battery in an attempt to distinguish high VSI performers from low VSI performers.

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